Analysis of a trial-spacing effect with relatively long intertrial intervals

Sunsay, Ceyhun; Bouton, Mark E.

doi:10.3758/lb.36.2.104

Cited by 31 publications

(38 citation statements)

References 37 publications

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“…In the present rat magazine-entry paradigm, the trial appears to be far more important in both conditioning and extinction than the time-accumulation view recognizes. For example, related research suggests that the effects of even temporal variables such as CS duration and trial spacing may be more consistent with SOP theory (e.g., Wagner, 1981; Wagner & Brandon, 1983), a trial-based model that explicitly recognizes a role for time, than with the time-accumulation view (Bouton & Sunsay, 2003; Moody et al, 2006; Sunsay & Bouton, 2008; Sunsay et al, 2004). Extant time-accumulation models are thus not ready to replace trial-based models.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Separation of time-based and trial-based accounts of the partial reinforcement extinction effect

Bouton

Woods

Todd

2014

Behavioural Processes

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Two appetitive conditioning experiments with rats examined time-based and trial-based accounts of the partial reinforcement extinction effect (PREE). In the PREE, the loss of responding that occurs in extinction is slower when the conditioned stimulus (CS) has been paired with a reinforcer on some of its presentations (partially reinforced) instead of every presentation (continuously reinforced). According to a time-based or “time-accumulation” view (e.g., Gallistel & Gibbon, 2000), the PREE occurs because the organism has learned in partial reinforcement to expect the reinforcer after a larger amount of time has accumulated in the CS over trials. In contrast, according to a trial-based view (e.g., Capaldi, 1967), the PREE occurs because the organism has learned in partial reinforcement to expect the reinforcer after a larger number of CS presentations. Experiment 1 used a procedure that equated partially- and continuously-reinforced groups on their expected times to reinforcement during conditioning. A PREE was still observed. Experiment 2 then used an extinction procedure that allowed time in the CS and the number of trials to accumulate differentially through extinction. The PREE was still evident when responding was examined as a function of expected time units to the reinforcer, but was eliminated when responding was examined as a function of expected trial units to the reinforcer. There was no evidence that the animal responded according to the ratio of time accumulated during the CS in extinction over the time in the CS expected before the reinforcer. The results thus favor a trial-based account over a time-based account of extinction and the PREE.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Separation of time-based and trial-based accounts of the partial reinforcement extinction effect

Bouton

Woods

Todd

2014

Behavioural Processes

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“…The benefits of this effect have been attributed to efficient acquisition of memory (35) and superior retention (36). Studies using an appetitive conditioning task and taste aversion learning in rats demonstrated that longer trial spacing facilitated the acquisition of memory (37,38). In contrast, an odor avoidance task performed in Drosophila, sensitization of the gill withdrawal reflex in Aplysia, and place navigation task performed in rats have shown facilitation of memory retention by spacing (10,16,18).…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Distinct kinetics of synaptic structural plasticity, memory formation, and memory decay in massed and spaced learning

Aziz

Wang

Kesaf

et al. 2013

Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.

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Long-lasting memories are formed when the stimulus is temporally distributed (spacing effect). However, the synaptic mechanisms underlying this robust phenomenon and the precise time course of the synaptic modifications that occur during learning remain unclear. Here we examined the adaptation of horizontal optokinetic response in mice that underwent 1 h of massed and spaced training at varying intervals. Despite similar acquisition by all training protocols, 1 h of spacing produced the highest memory retention at 24 h, which lasted for 1 mo. The distinct kinetics of memory are strongly correlated with the reduction of floccular parallel fiber-Purkinje cell synapses but not with AMPA receptor (AMPAR) number and synapse size. After the spaced training, we observed 25%, 23%, and 12% reduction in AMPAR density, synapse size, and synapse number, respectively. Four hours after the spaced training, half of the synapses and Purkinje cell spines had been eliminated, whereas AMPAR density and synapse size were recovered in remaining synapses. Surprisingly, massed training also produced long-term memory and halving of synapses; however, this occurred slowly over days, and the memory lasted for only 1 wk. This distinct kinetics of structural plasticity may serve as a basis for unique temporal profiles in the formation and decay of memory with or without intervals. cerebellar motor learning | AMPA receptor reduction | synapse shrinkage and elimination D uring learning, memories are formed in a specific population of neuronal circuits and are consolidated for persistence (1, 2). These memory processes are supported by discrete subcellular events such as reversible modifications in the efficacy of synaptic transmission (3-5) or persistent structural modifications in the size and number of synaptic connections (6-8). However, how these synaptic modifications relate to the dynamics of formation and decay of memories in behaving animals remains elusive. Memory formation and its persistence are also sensitive to the temporal features of stimulus presentation, as observed in the well-known "spacing effect." Training trials that include resting intervals between them (spaced training) produce stronger and longer-lasting memories than do the same number of trials with no intervals (massed training) (9). The spacing effect has been observed in a variety of explicit and implicit memory tasks (10-13), and the molecular mechanisms supporting this phenomenon have been reported (14-18). Various intracellular signaling molecules such as CREB (19), mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase (20, 21), and PKA (22, 23) underlie the spacing effect and are implicated in the remodeling of neuronal structures (23). In vitro studies showed that spaced stimuli induced the protrusion of new filopodia (20) and the recruitment of new synapses (24) in hippocampal neurons. However, despite the existence of numerous behavioral and molecular studies, no conjoint study has elucidated the synaptic correlates that underpin the expression of the spacing effect du...

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“…It is widely known that trials that are spaced over a period of time result in stronger learning than temporally massed trials; this is true for appetitive (food) conditioning (e.g., Sunsay & Bouton, 2008; Sunsay et al, 2004) as well as other kinds of conditioning (e.g., Barela, 1999; Domjan, 1980). At a theoretical level, spaced trials may enhance learning by increasing the novelty or surprisingness of the cue and the significant outcome (Sunsay & Bouton, 2008); they might also improve memory strength if it is partially forgotten between learning episodes (Bjork & Bjork, 1992) or the learning in extinction of inhibition if error correction (like responding itself) spontaneously recovers over time (e.g., Leung & Westbrook, 2008). Although there is ample theory to suggest that spaced extinction trials would improve extinction learning, trial spacing during extinction training has produced inconsistent results in animal experiments (e.g., compare results of Cain, Blouin, & Barad, 2003; Moody, Sunsay, & Bouton, 2006b; Urcelay, Wheeler, & Miller, 2009).…”

Section: How To Improve Extinction Learningmentioning

confidence: 99%

Implications of learning theory for developing programs to decrease overeating

Boutelle

Bouton

2015

Appetite

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Childhood obesity is associated with medical and psychological comorbidities, and interventions targeting overeating could be pragmatic and have a significant impact on weight. Calorically dense foods are easily available, variable, and tasty which allows for effective opportunities to learn to associate behaviors and cues in the environment with food through fundamental conditioning processes, resulting in measurable psychological and physiological food cue reactivity in vulnerable children. Basic research suggests that initial learning is difficult to erase, and that it is vulnerable to a number of phenomena that will allow the original learning to re-emerge after it is suppressed or replaced. These processes may help explain why it may be difficult to change food cue reactivity and overeating over the long term. Extinction theory may be used to develop effective cue-exposure treatments to decrease food cue reactivity through inhibitory learning, although these processes are complex and require an integral understanding of the theory and individual differences. Additionally, learning theory can be used to develop other interventions that may prove to be useful. Through an integration of learning theory, basic and translational research, it may be possible to develop interventions that can decrease the urges to overeat, and improve the weight status of children.

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Analysis of a trial-spacing effect with relatively long intertrial intervals

Cited by 31 publications

References 37 publications

Separation of time-based and trial-based accounts of the partial reinforcement extinction effect

Separation of time-based and trial-based accounts of the partial reinforcement extinction effect

Distinct kinetics of synaptic structural plasticity, memory formation, and memory decay in massed and spaced learning

Implications of learning theory for developing programs to decrease overeating

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