Analogical Reasoning in the Classroom: Insights From Cognitive Science

Abstract

ABSTRACT-Applying knowledge from one context to another is a notoriously difficult problem, both for children and adults, but lies at the heart of educational endeavors. Analogical reasoning is a cognitive underpinning of the ability to notice and draw similarities across contexts. Reasoning by analogy is especially challenging for students, who must transfer in the context-rich and often high-pressure settings of classrooms. In this brief article, we explore how best to facilitate children's analogical reasoning, with the aim of providing practical suggestions for classroom instruction.We first discuss what is known about the development and neurological underpinnings of analogical reasoning, and then review research directly relevant to supporting analogical reasoning in classroom contexts. We conclude with concrete suggestions for educators that may foster their students' spontaneous analogical reasoning and thereby enhance scholastic achievement.A key challenge for students is learning to recognize and learn from opportunities to apply previously learned information to new situations. For example, when teaching students about the atom in school, one approach could be to present an analogy between the solar system and the atom (see Figure 1a). In this example, the solar system represents a domain that is already familiar to students (the source), and the atom represents the domain that students are learning about (the target).

Effects of Instructional Guidance and Sequencing of Manipulatives and Written Symbols on Second Graders’ Numeration Knowledge

“…Specifically, irrespective of representational sequence, those students who received instructional guidance on the link between the manipulatives and the written notation improved on their understanding of regrouping relative to those who received no such guidance. These findings are consistent with the literature on analogical reasoning, which has shown that structure mapping, or abstracting the structural similarities between two analogues, is greatly improved when support is provided, whether it is implicit, in the form of prompts or suggestions, or explicit in the form of direct explanations (Alfieri et al, 2014;Vendetti et al, 2015) [12,35], as presented in this study. In addition, the findings contribute to the current debate in the literature on optimal ways to use manipulatives in the classroom by suggesting that, at least for regrouping concepts, children benefit from explicit explanations on the meaning of the representations they use in the classroom, regardless of the order in which the materials are presented (see also Carbonneau & Marley, 2015) [42].…”

“…Should teachers present, say, written notation before base-ten blocks are introduced, their lessons should incorporate explicit explanations on the structural similarities between the two representations. The results of this research confirm that making explicit structural mappings between representations that vary on their level of "groundedness" is an important recommendation for teachers (e.g., Vendetti et al, 2015) [35], but also reveal that the recommendation does not apply under all conditions. That is, in educational contexts, appropriate levels of instructional support may depend on other pedagogical factors, such as lesson sequencing.…”

“…Student performance can be enhanced when instructors verbally encourage students to notice the structural similarities between two analogous problems: Such encouragements may take the form of prompts that encourage comparison (e.g., Nagarajan & Hmelo-Silver, 2006) [34], or they may be more directed, including explicit explanations of the underlying concept or principle that ties the two cases together (Alfieri et al, 2014; Kaminski et al, 2013) [12,25]. Young learners also have lower levels of prior knowledge relative to their older peers, which in part explains their struggle to notice structural similarities and engage in mapping processes that lead to relevant schema induction (English, 2004;Vendetti, Matlen, Richland & Bunge, 2015) [10,35].…”

Progression paths in children’s problem solving: The influence of dynamic testing, initial variability, and working memory

“…Analogical reasoning is of fundamental importance for the understanding, transfer, and retention of many key educational principles in school (Vendetti, Matlen, Richland, & Bunge, 2015). However, laboratory studies suggest that this is not always a spontaneous process (Gick & Holyoak, 1980;1983) and children can be easily distracted by irrelevant information, for example, perceptual features rather than underlying relationships (Richland et al, 2006).…”

“…Clearly, the skill of the teacher in supporting the child's use of analogical reasoning is key to effective learning (Richland & Simms, 2015) yet teachers are unlikely to feel confident in how best to support individual children. While we know that differences in the nature and frequency of adult prompts geared to encourage the comparison of analogical relationships can have a significant influence upon children's learning and retention (Vendetti et al, 2015), we still have much to learn about the most effective ways of offering differential instruction that reflects individual differences.…”