An Overview of the Body Schema and Body Image: Theoretical Models, Methodological Settings and Pitfalls for Rehabilitation of Persons with Neurological Disorders

Abstract

Given the widespread debate on the definition of the terms “Body Schema” and “Body Image”, this article presents a broad overview of the studies that have investigated the nature of these types of body representations, especially focusing on the innovative information about these two representations that could be useful for the rehabilitation of patients with different neurological disorders with motor deficits (especially those affecting the upper limbs). In particular, we analyzed (i) the different definitions and explicative models proposed, (ii) the empirical settings used to test them and (iii) the clinical and rehabilitative implications derived from the application of interventions on specific case reports. The growing number of neurological diseases with motor impairment in the general population has required the development of new rehabilitation techniques and a new phenomenological paradigm placing body schema as fundamental and intrinsic parts for action in space. In this narrative review, the focus was placed on evidence from the application of innovative rehabilitation techniques and case reports involving the upper limbs, as body parts particularly involved in finalistic voluntary actions in everyday life, discussing body representations and their functional role.

Does Body Memory Exist? A Review of Models, Approaches and Recent Findings Useful for Neurorehabilitation

“…In contrast to the other body representations (for extensive discussions, [5,97,98]), BM appears as one of the most faded, considering that the term "memory" self includes different aspects (e.g., implicit vs. explicit, conscious vs. unconscious) a that this term could be considered as an umbrella term as affirmed by some authors w considered that all cognitive function ispossible only in the presence of memory fu tions [99,100]. Therefore, in this final section, we want to discuss the evidence repor above, considering, in particular, the lens of ontogenic development of body represen Comprehensive conceptual map that showcases the techniques/therapies that are utilized to modify BM.…”

“…Body representations go beyond mere metric information, with various models and taxonomies that propose multiple representations of the body [ 4 ]. Conditions like phantom limb syndrome and anorexia nervosa highlight the complexity of body representations [ 5 ], encompassing aspects such as body schema, body image, body awareness and so on. Furthermore, factors like physical, emotional, and cultural influences, personal experiences, and traumatic events all seem to contribute to the development and maintenance of body representations.…”

Being in Virtual Reality and Its Influence on Brain Health—An Overview of Benefits, Limitations and Prospects

“…Recent findings demonstrate novel individualized biomarker-based approaches with a well-targeted patient population in neurotherapy and neurorehabilitation, for example, individuals with schizophrenia and autism spectrum disorders and individuals with neurological or neuromuscular diseases [48][49][50][51][52][53]. Table 1 presents examples of VR use, as well as comparisons of traditional methods with new digital proposals.…”

An Overview of the Bodily Awareness Representation and Interoception: Insights and Progress in the Field of Neurorehabilitation Research

“…They exhibit a greater malleability of the bodily self and tend to consider the body as an object, indicating a greater self-objectification tendency, which is an overfocus and reliance on exteroceptive stimuli of the body (i.e., vision). In fact, it has been discovered that individuals with eating disorders and impaired IAcc present more intense body-illusion effects in the rubber hand illusion paradigm [34] and body image representation seems to be a particular feature in these subjects (for an extensive review on this topic, see also Sattin et al [35]). Interestingly, the definition proposed by Desmedt and colleagues [16], reported above, states that interoception involves both bottom-up and top-down processes, and that is completely consistent with the active inference theory of Seth and Friston [32] and with others' recent computational models (e.g., [36,37]).…”

“…Moreover, the literature in recent years has proposed that BA may develop from the body schema and body image considered as representations of our body-the former unconscious and related to the surrounding space, the latter conscious [66]. Consequently, the neural substrates supporting the body schema and body image could potentially be some of the neural substrates of BA [35,67].…”