An interdisciplinary conceptual study of Artificial Intelligence (AI) for helping benefit-risk assessment practices

Abstract

We propose a comprehensive analysis of existing concepts of AI coming from different disciplines: Psychology and engineering tackle the notion of intelligence, while ethics and law intend to regulate AI innovations. The aim is to identify shared notions or discrepancies to consider for qualifying AI systems. Relevant concepts are integrated into a matrix intended to help defining more precisely when and how computing tools (programs or devices) may be qualified as AI while highlighting critical features to serve a specific technical, ethical and legal assessment of challenges in AI development. Some adaptations of existing notions of AI characteristics are proposed. The matrix is a risk-based conceptual model designed to allow an empirical, flexible and scalable qualification of AI technologies in the perspective of benefit-risk assessment practices, technological monitoring and regulatory compliance: it offers a structured reflection tool for stakeholders in AI development that are engaged in responsible research and innovation.

Specific challenges posed by artificial intelligence in research ethics

“…The current normative guidelines do not make up for the few AI-related guidelines (Aymerich-Franch and Fosch-Villaronga, 2020 ). However, in addition to the ethical standards used as a basis for AI use guidelines, the UN published a first set of guidelines to regulate AI (Chassang et al, 2021 ). Many projects, like the Human Brain Project (HBP), took the initiative to encourage discussions from different parties to anticipate issues that could result from their research (Stahl and Coeckelbergh, 2016 ; Aicardi et al, 2018 , 2020 ).…”

“…For instance, in the EU, the law protects animals as sentient living organisms and unique tangible goods. Their legal status also obliges researchers not to harm animals during research projects, making us question the status and rights we should assign AIS or robots (Chassang et al, 2021 ). Indeed, Miller pointed out that having a machine at one's disposal raises questions on human-machine relationships and the hierarchical power it might induce (Miller, 2020 ).…”

“…Public education and ethical training implementation could help governments spread awareness and sensitize people regarding research ethics in AI (Cath et al, 2018 ). Accountability of AI regulation and decision-making should not strictly fall into stakeholders' hands but also be based on solid legal grounds (Chassang et al, 2021 ). Digital mental health apps and other institutions will now be attributed responsibilities that have usually been acclaimed to professionals or researchers using the technology (i.e., decision-making, providing users with enough tools to understand and use products, being able to help when needed, etc.)…”

Artificial Intelligence in Today’s Education Landscape: Understanding and Managing Ethical Issues for Educational Assessment

“…It is useful to note that 'intelligence' in AI exists as a continuum. Chassang et al (2021) describes how AI can be mapped into Bloom's taxonomy of learning, with 'Crystallized Intelligence' describing lower order thinking skills and 'Fluid Intelligence' describing higher order thinking skills. The former includes mainly supervised learning (or target-based prediction), with "encoding capacity, middle-long term memory and ability to access memorized data in a logical way", while the latter includes a higher level of intelligence abstraction, with "the ability to solve new problems, use logics in new situations and identify patterns without necessarily having the prior experience of similar information or problems".…”

Exploration of the Ideological and Political Elements of Artificial Intelligence Courses under the Background of Three Comprehensive Education

“…However, from the "course ideology and politics," there are still some shortcomings. It is against this background of "course ideology and politics" that we should fully tap the elements of and effectively integrate the content of education into the course [10]. The unity of leadership will cultivate college students into talents with both ability and political integrity and all-round development.…”