“…Variants of CNN networks are widely used in CV studies in the field of ITS. There are a number of CNN-based studies in the literature, such as those focused on automatic license plate recognition [ 40 , 41 ], traffic sign detection and recognition [ 25 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 ], vehicle detection [ 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 ], pedestrian detection [ 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 ], lane line detection [ 61 , 62 , 63 ], obstacle detection [ 64 ], video anomaly detection [ 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 ], structural damage detection [ 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 77 , 78 ], and steering angle detection [ 79 , 80 , 81 , 82 ] in autonomous vehicles. The most popular and advanced CNN-based architectures in the literature [ 83 , 84 ] are presented in Figure 3 .…”