“…Inspired by the studies of Baker, Palmer, and Kerski (2009);Igbaria, Pavri, and Huff (1989);Igbaria (1992); and Kerski (2003), we use three manifest indicators to measure actual GIS usage: (1) the frequency of GIS usage in class during the previous semester, using a six-point scale (i.e., never, 1-5 times, 6-10 times, 11-15 times, 16-20 times, and more than 20 times; AU1) (Baker, Palmer, & Kerski, 2009) ; (2) the number of GIS software packages used in teaching (AU2) (Igbaria, Pavri, & Huff, 1989;Igbaria, 1992); and (3) the number of lecture themes in which GIS was employed (AU3) (Baker, Palmer, & Kerski, 2009;Kerski, 2003).…”