An Ethologic Search for Self-Administration of Hallucinogens

Brodie

1984

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The anecdotal and historical literature describing intoxication in elephants from fermented fruit or alcoholic beverages is reviewed. Seven African elephants readily self-administered 7% unflavored alcohol solutions; the results included separation from herd groupings and changes in the frequency and/or duration of several behaviors as scored according to a quantitative observational system. Alcohol decreased feeding, drinking, bathing, and exploration for most animals. Inappropriate behaviors such as lethargy and ataxia increased for all elephants. Results are discussed in terms of stress-induced drinking and intoxication.

Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 81%

Alcohol self-administration by elephants

Brodie

1984

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“…Similarly, Dorr and Steinberg (1976) reported an increase in flight behavior in mice treated with t;' -tetrahydrocannabinol in response to investigations from nontreated mice, and suggested that this result could be explained by drug-induced hypersensitivity to external auditory and tactile stimuli. Alternatively, Siegel (1973) has suggested that hallucinogen-treated animals tend to isolate themselves from social stimulation because of the intense inter· nal stimulation and stimuli (such as hallucinations) presumably induced by these drugs. Whatever the mechanism by which hallucinogens increase isolation, it should be noted that in the present study aggregation never dropped appreciably below baseline levels, although this may have been because baseline levels were low to begin with or because of the novelty created by injection procedures.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Hallucinogen-induced behaviors of free-moving chimpanzees

Brower

1977

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The effects of the hallucinogen N.N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) on the behavior of two island groups of four champanzees each were studied. One target animal from each group was selected for treatment and individual and social behaviors were scored according to a quantitative observational system. Low doses of DMT (.5-3.0 mg/kg) caused dose-dependent increases in duration of vocalization. fear grimace, and locomotion. Higher doses (4.0 mg/kg) tended to decrease these behaviors as well as others such as self-grooming. Social aggregation tended to decrease with increasing doses. and social interactions between target animals and others were rare. Results tended to support the hypothesis that hallucinogens increase social spacing and isolation. METHODA number of laboratory studies have demonstrated that characteristic and often dramatic behavioral changes occur in nonhuman primates following treatment with hallucinogens (see review by Siegel & Jarvik, 1975). Hallucinogen-treated primates have been observed to jump, scream, whimper, and grimace; touch, scratch, or wipe their heads and faces; exhibit hyperexcitability and fear; cover their eyes with their hands; grasp at imaginary objects in the air; and run backward while waving their hands in front of their faces (Baldwin, Lewis, & Frost, 1957;Kluver, 1966; Lagutina, Laricheva, Mil'shtein, & Norkina, 1964; Reynolds, Barker, & Joffe, 1968). Siegel, Brewster, and Jarvik (1974) have developed an objective technique for quantitatively scoring such behaviors. Accordingly, hallucinogens (LSD and DMT) could be distinguished from other drugs (d-amphetamine and chlorpromazine) by an increased frequency of such behaviors as spasms, stereotypy, rocking, fear grimaces, tracking, inappropriate behavior, and a decreased amount of vocalization and exploration time. This observational method has recently been shown to be sensitive enough to detect dose-response curves with DMT-treated monkeys (Brewster, Siegel, Johnson, & Jarvik, 1976). SubjectsThe robust behavioral changes that occur in individual nonhuman primates treated with hallucinogens, coupled with unobtrusive observational methods, suggest further extension of these studies to social groups in more natural (nonlaboratory) habitats. The following initial study was designed to explore these areas. 287Subjects were four male and four female chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) that lived on two outdoor islands of a small lake located in a park owned and operated by Lion Country Safari, Inc., Laguna Hills. California. The two islands. each approximately 300 sq m in area, were within visual and vocal range of each other. Four of the chimps (one male and three females) lived on the island designated as North Island, and the other four chimps (three males and one female) lived on South Island. All chimps were fully mature adults except for a North Island adolescent female and a South Island juvenile male. Target animals, selected for representative social interaction, were an adult female from North Island (Alice) and an adult male fro...

“…These include dizziness, nausea, vomiting, perceptual distortions, ataxia, inappropriate and bizarre behavior, hallucinations, and, in sufficient dosages, death. The inevitable ecological encounters between animals and these naturally occurring plant drugs give rise to numerous intoxications and poisonings (Siegel, 1973). But most animals use acute sensory mechanisms to detect the bitter compounds, learn from feeding mistakes , and develop feeding strategies to minimize intake of plant drugs and maximize nutrition .…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

DMT self-administration by monkeys in isolation

Jarvik

1980

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Three rhesus monkeys trained to smoke lettuce cigarettes for water reward extinguished responding when given water ad lib or when the hallucinogen dimethyltryptamine (DMT) was added to the lettuce. Monkeys were then individually confined to an operant unit placed in a sensory isolation chamber that deprived them of light and sound but permitted infrared video monitoring. After continuous isolation for several days. two monkeys consistently selfadministered DMT in performance marked by dramatic changes in perceptual-motor behaviors. These results suggest that animals will self-administer a hallucinogen when it provides stimulation in an otherwise deprived environment.