An Empirical Test of Labeling Theory Using Longitudinal Data

Abstract

This article uses panel data and multiple regression of follow-up on baseline variables to test direction of causality among drug use behavior, informal labels, and formal labels. Baseline and follow-up data were collected on a random sample of 100 adolescents (54 males) and a clinical sample of 88 adolescents (49 males). Separate regressions were performed on male and female respondents using both samples. Slope differences across samples were tested using interaction terms computed by multiplying sample type (coded as 0 = random, 1 = clinical) by each regressor. Results partially supported by the labeling theory proposition of secondary deviance among males, although changes are suggested in this proposition. Among females, drug use behavior was causally prior to labels, which contradicts secondary deviance. Further research is needed to clarify reasons for this sex difference in causal processes over time. An implication for research is to use panel data where possible in testing direction of causality. An implication for theory in the social sciences is that theories may be sex-specific. Thus theories must be tested separately on each sex as well as on samples including both sexes.

Identity Construction, Self Perceptions, and Criminal Behavior of Incarcerated Women

“…Although the ages of self identified criminality ranged widely from age 8 to the early 20 s, the women who saw themselves as criminal reportedly held that view on average when they were 16 or 17 years old. Drug use and sales were significantly related to women's later definition of themselves as a criminal, a finding which was supported by Ray and Downs (1986) who concluded that young females construct their self-label in response or following drug use behavior. It is also possible that as drug use and behaviors have become more criminalized with stiffer penalties, more young women have been brought into the system (Buchanan and Young 2000).…”

“…Three examples are before the felony conviction process to better understand the process of how individuals come to identify with being a criminal, which may include factors such as parental neglect, sexual abuse, or substance abuse that may prevent the development of high self esteem (Crocker and Major 1989). Another point in time might be immediately after justice intervention to see how social sanctions might influence future deviant behavior, such as approaches used by Ray and Downs (1986), Kaplan and Damphousse (1997) or by Bernburg et al (2006). A third related avenue is how stigmatizing labels are resisted depending on the proportion of positive social associations, or on the individual's level of confidence about the future.…”

“…Labeling then might be less able to explain initial identity formation, and seemingly more applicable in how the label contributes to further development of self concept. Development of self concept can have potentially more serious implications for women than for men because of imposed societal gender roles and cultural constraints (Ray and Downs 1986). One study found that an incarcerated woman who has defined herself by her familial role may be surprised to find her outside family support system to lack the strength that she feels she needs to sustain herself (Culbertson and Fortune 1986).…”

The Labeling of Convicted Felons and Its Consequences for Recidivism*

“…Regarding juveniles, Ageton and Elliott (1974) hypothesized that "males are more likely to be affected negatively by police contact than females," but no rationale was associated with that expectation. Somewhat later, Ray and Downs (1986), also in the context of adolescents, articulated the opposite expectation. On the premise that "females are expected to be more attentive to interpersonal relationships than men," they hypothesized that "labels may exert more of an influence on behavior for females than males " (1986: 171).…”

The Relationship Between Neutralizations and Perceived Delinquent Labeling On Criminal History in Young Offenders Serving Community Orders

“…For example, longitudinal studies show that no causal relationship exists between formal labeling and the adoption of a "drug-user" label among drugusing adolescents (Ray & Downs, 1986). Additionally, Ray and Downs found that, contrary to the predictions of labeling theory, formal labeling had no causal effect on the substance use behaviors of drug-using adolescent females.…”