“…In addition to the previous considerations, the development of numerical methods (especially finite element (FE)-based formulations) to predict fracture onset, propagation and branching in engineering components has been a matter of intensive research during the last decades, to tackle problems that cannot be solved by analytical methods. Most of the extensively used techniques to trigger quasi-brittle and ductile fracture events fall into the following general categories: (i) Continuum Damage Mechanics (CDM) models accounting for a smeared crack representation [19], which in their local version suffer from mesh dependency that has been partially alleviated by using integral-based non-local and gradient enhanced procedures [20,21,22,23,24]; (ii) extended FE strategies with nodal kinematic enrichment (extended-FEM, X-FEM) that rely on Partition of Unity Methods (PUM) [25,26,27] and element enrichment formulations (enhanced-FEM, E-FEM) [28,29,30,31]; (iii) adaptive insertion of cohesive interface elements during the computation or their prior embedding along all the finite element edges [32,33,34,35,36,37,38]; (iv) thick-level set approaches [39,40]. Although these strategies have been successfully applied to many different fracture mechanics problems, they all present limitations with regard to predicting crack initiation, crack branching, and crack coalescence for multiple fronts.…”