Altered motivation states for physical activity and ‘appetite’ for movement as compensatory mechanisms limiting the efficacy of exercise training for weight loss

Abstract

Weight loss is a major motive for engaging in exercise, despite substantial evidence that exercise training results in compensatory responses that inhibit significant weight loss. According to the Laws of Thermodynamics and the CICO (Calories in, Calories out) model, increased exercise-induced energy expenditure (EE), in the absence of any compensatory increase in energy intake, should result in an energy deficit leading to reductions of body mass. However, the expected negative energy balance is met with both volitional and non-volitional (metabolic and behavioral) compensatory responses. A commonly reported compensatory response to exercise is increased food intake (i.e., Calories in) due to increased hunger, increased desire for certain foods, and/or changes in health beliefs. On the other side of the CICO model, exercise training can instigate compensatory reductions in EE that resist the maintenance of an energy deficit. This may be due to decreases in non-exercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT), increases in sedentary behavior, or alterations in sleep. Related to this EE compensation, the motivational states associated with the desire to be active tend to be overlooked when considering compensatory changes in non-exercise activity. For example, exercise-induced alterations in the wanting of physical activity could be a mechanism promoting compensatory reductions in EE. Thus, one’s desires, urges or cravings for movement–also known as “motivation states” or “appetence for activity”-are thought to be proximal instigators of movement. Motivation states for activity may be influenced by genetic, metabolic, and psychological drives for activity (and inactivity), and such states are susceptible to fatigue-or reward-induced responses, which may account for reductions in NEAT in response to exercise training. Further, although the current data are limited, recent investigations have demonstrated that motivation states for physical activity are dampened by exercise and increase after periods of sedentarism. Collectively, this evidence points to additional compensatory mechanisms, associated with motivational states, by which impositions in exercise-induced changes in energy balance may be met with resistance, thus resulting in attenuated weight loss.

Relationship exercise motivation levels on quality of life during retirement from elite sport

“…Retired athletes' lack of motivation to exercise is caused by several factors (Haase et al, 2023;Nilaweera et al, 2023). First, the loss of the meaning of sport for athletes who have entered retirement (Flack et al, 2023). The loss of meaning in sports among retired athletes is caused by a lack of provision by related parties before entering retirement.…”

“…After retiring from competitive sports, an athlete has other activities such as working and taking care of housework. A heavy and large workload combined with housework makes a retired athlete feel tired and have no free time to exercise (Flack et al, 2023). This busyness also makes retired athletes choose to rest rather than use their rest time to work.…”

The CRAVE and ARGE scales for motivation states for physical activity and sedentarism: Brazilian Portuguese translation and single-item versions

“…Our previous manuscripts have extensively suggested future research possibilities ( Stults-Kolehmainen et al, 2020 , 2021a , 2022 , 2023 ; Budnick et al, 2023 ; Flack et al, 2023 ). Primarily based on limitations that were discussed above for each study, future research could focus on the following 10 areas of need:…”