Air–Sea Exchange in Hurricanes: Synthesis of Observations from the Coupled Boundary Layer Air–Sea Transfer Experiment

Black, Peter G.; D’Asaro, Eric A.; Drennan, William M.; French, Jeffrey R.; Niiler, Pearn P.; Sanford, Thomas B.; Terrill, Eric; Walsh, Edward J.; Zhang, Jun A.

doi:10.1175/bams-88-3-357

Cited by 488 publications

(446 citation statements)

References 26 publications

(35 reference statements)

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“…Physical processes used are the Rapid Radiative Transfer Model (RRTM) scheme for long-wave radiation and Dudhia scheme for shortwave radiation, the Purdue Lin cloud microphysics scheme, and the Yonsei University (YSU) planetary boundary-layer parametrization. Calculation of surface stress and fluxes uses the new bulk formulation in WRF V3.1, which is in line with the recent research results under hurricane wind conditions (Donelan et al, 2004;Black et al, 2007).…”

Section: Hurricane Modelsupporting

confidence: 74%

Intensity forecast experiment of hurricane Rita (2005) with a cloud‐resolving, coupled hurricane–ocean modelling system

Qiu¹,

Xiao²,

Tan³

et al. 2011

Quart J Royal Meteoro Soc

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A cloud-resolving, coupled hurricane-ocean modelling system is developed under the Earth System Modeling Framework using state-of-the-art numerical forecasting models of the atmosphere and the ocean. With this system, the importance of coupling to an eddy-resolving ocean model and the high resolution of the atmospheric model for the prediction of intensity change of hurricane Rita (2005) is demonstrated through a set of numerical experiments. The erroneous intensification in the uncoupled experiments could be eliminated when taking account of the negative feedback of sea-surface temperature cooling. Moreover, the deepening rate of Rita becomes larger with higher resolution of the atmospheric model. Nevertheless, the horizontal resolution of the atmospheric model with grid spacing at least less than ∼4 km is required in order to predict the rapid intensity changes of hurricane Rita in the fully coupled experiment. This strong dependence is found to arise from the potential interaction between the ocean coupling and internal processes of Rita, thus indicating that both high resolution and the ocean coupling are indispensable for the future improvement of hurricane intensity prediction.

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Section: Hurricane Modelsupporting

confidence: 74%

Intensity forecast experiment of hurricane Rita (2005) with a cloud‐resolving, coupled hurricane–ocean modelling system

Qiu¹,

Xiao²,

Tan³

et al. 2011

Quart J Royal Meteoro Soc

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“…First, recent observational and laboratory studies have found that the ratio C k /C d is likely ∼0.5-0.7 in intense tropical cyclones (e.g. Black et al, 2007;Bell, 2010: Haus et al, 2010; therefore, the 10-to 18-day values for Figure 3 are probably not relevant to TCs in nature. Second, as mentioned several times herein, the initial conditions for these simulations are subsaturated everywhere; several days are required to reach saturation, after which the rapid intensification begins (e.g.…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

Comments on ‘Sensitivity of tropical‐cyclone models to the surface drag coefficient’

Bryan

2012

Quart J Royal Meteoro Soc

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Some conclusions from a recent numerical modeling study regarding the potential intensity of tropical cyclones are shown to be attributable to a relatively short model integration time. Three-dimensional simulations that are long enough to allow for a quasi-steady state of maximum intensity show a result consistent with theory, i.e., that maximum intensity is inversely proportional to surface drag coefficient. An alternative hypothesis for how tropical cyclones can intensify in numerical models in the absence of surface drag is also offered.Key Words: hurricane; surface exchange coefficient; numerical simulation In a recent numerical modeling study, Montgomery et al.(2010, hereafter MSN10) examined the sensitivity of tropical cyclone (TC) intensification to the surface drag coefficient. As part of their study, MSN10 compared their results to previous studies on maximum possible intensity (also known as potential intensity, PI). This comparison to studies on PI should have been done more carefully because there is a significant difference in methodology between MSN10's simulations and the methodology used in previous studies of PI; specifically, the length of the model integration is approximately a factor of 3 smaller in MSN10. The primary purpose of this Comment is to document this key difference, and to demonstrate how this different methodology can lead to different conclusions. I also offer an alternative hypothesis for how TCs can intensify in numerical models in the absence of surface drag.Tropical-cyclone PI is usually considered to be proportional to the surface exchange coefficient for enthalpy C k because, all else being equal, larger C k results in larger surface heat flux (which is the ultimate source of energy for TCs). Furthermore, PI is usually considered to be inversely proportional to the surface exchange coefficient for momentum C d because, all else being equal, larger C d (i.e. surface drag) results in larger kinetic energy dissipation. More specifically, some theoretical studies have determined that maximum tangential velocity V max should vary as follows:(1) (e.g. Emanuel, 2004, and references therein). It is important to note that Eq. (1) applies to the maximum possible tangential velocity for a specified environment (e.g. seasurface temperature, atmospheric moisture/temperature profile), assuming all else held fixed. Furthermore, Eq. (1) is derived from equations assuming steady flow (i.e. Eulerian time-tendency terms are negligible). Some support for Eq. (1) was found in numerical modeling studies by Emanuel (1995) and Bryan and Rotunno (2009). Using two different axisymmetric models (one based on gradient-wind balance and the other a primitive-equation model), Emanuel (1995) evaluated Eq.(1) by integrating these models 'for long enough that quasisteady mature model storms were achieved' (p. 3972). Using a different primitive-equation axisymmetric model, Bryan and Rotunno (2009) integrated numerical simulations for 12 days in order to achieve 'an approximately steady state ' (p. 1775)...

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“…Recent results indicated a saturation value of C D at the wind speed of 28-33 m s −1 (Donelan et al, 2004;Jarosz et al, 2007;Powel et al, 2003). Three semi-empirical formulas from Powel et al (2003), Black et al (2007), and Jarosz et al (2007) are used in this Table 4). The estimated storm's U h was also listed in Table 4.…”

Section: Current Velocity Scale (U S )mentioning

confidence: 99%

Observed near-surface currents under four super typhoons

Chang

Chu

Centurioni

et al. 2014

Journal of Marine Systems

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Air–Sea Exchange in Hurricanes: Synthesis of Observations from the Coupled Boundary Layer Air–Sea Transfer Experiment

Abstract: Combining airborne remote, in situ, and expendable probe sensors with air-deployed ocean platforms provides a strategy for expanding knowledge of illusive high-wind air-sea fluxes in difficult-to-predict storms.

Cited by 488 publications

References 26 publications

Intensity forecast experiment of hurricane Rita (2005) with a cloud‐resolving, coupled hurricane–ocean modelling system

Intensity forecast experiment of hurricane Rita (2005) with a cloud‐resolving, coupled hurricane–ocean modelling system

Comments on ‘Sensitivity of tropical‐cyclone models to the surface drag coefficient’

Observed near-surface currents under four super typhoons

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