Air pollution and children’s health—a review of adverse effects associated with prenatal exposure from fine to ultrafine particulate matter

Abstract

Background Particulate matter (PM), a major component of ambient air pollution, accounts for a substantial burden of diseases and fatality worldwide. Maternal exposure to PM during pregnancy is particularly harmful to children’s health since this is a phase of rapid human growth and development. Method In this review, we synthesize the scientific evidence on adverse health outcomes in children following prenatal exposure to the smallest toxic components, fine (PM2.5) and ultrafine (PM0.1) PM. We highlight the established and emerging findings from epidemiologic studies and experimental models. Results Maternal exposure to fine and ultrafine PM directly and indirectly yields numerous adverse birth outcomes and impacts on children’s respiratory systems, immune status, brain development, and cardiometabolic health. The biological mechanisms underlying adverse effects include direct placental translocation of ultrafine particles, placental and systemic maternal oxidative stress and inflammation elicited by both fine and ultrafine PM, epigenetic changes, and potential endocrine effects that influence long-term health. Conclusion Policies to reduce maternal exposure and health consequences in children should be a high priority. PM2.5 levels are regulated, yet it is recognized that minority and low socioeconomic status groups experience disproportionate exposures. Moreover, PM0.1 levels are not routinely measured or currently regulated. Consequently, preventive strategies that inform neighborhood/regional planning and clinical/nutritional recommendations are needed to mitigate maternal exposure and ultimately protect children’s health.

NRF2-Dependent Placental Effects Vary by Sex and Dose following Gestational Exposure to Ultrafine Particles

“…Gestational PM exposure is associated with numerous adverse birth outcomes [ 5 ]. These include premature birth, fetal growth restriction, and infant low birth weight, all of which are significant risk factors for neonatal morbidity and mortality [ 6 , 7 , 8 , 38 , 39 ].…”

“…PM is classified as coarse (PM 10 ), fine (PM 2.5 ), and ultrafine particles (UFPs; PM 0.1 ) based on their size [ 2 , 3 , 4 ]. The fine and ultrafine fractions can penetrate deeper in the airways in comparison with coarse particles, leading to numerous adverse health effects, particularly when exposure occurs during periods of rapid growth and development, such as the prenatal period [ 5 ]. Evidence from epidemiological studies links PM exposure, mainly PM 2.5 , during pregnancy with several adverse perinatal outcomes, including preterm birth, infant low birth weight, and placental growth [ 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 ].…”

Prospective association of air purifier use during pregnancy with the neurodevelopment of toddlers in the Japan Environment and Children’s Study

“…Accumulating evidence suggests that foetal exposure to air pollution plays a role in the aetiology of neurodevelopmental delay 1 – 3 . For example, previous studies linked foetal exposure to particulate matter (PM) or polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons to brain morphology and reduced cognitive function in school-aged children 4 and decreased IQs at 5 years of age 5 .…”

Formation, radiative forcing, and climatic effects of severe regional haze

“…The severe haze events induce great degradation in visibility and air quality, with profound societal implications (An et al, 2019). For example, exposure to elevated levels of fine PM leads to adverse health effects, ranging from aggravated allergies to the development of chronic diseases, to premature death (Pope and Dockery, 2015;Wu et al, 2019;Rychlik et al, 2019;Johnson et al, 2021;. Also, elevated levels of fine aerosols result in pronounced modifications to clouds, precipitation, and lightning, impacting regional/global weather and climate (Zhang et al, 2007;Yuan et al, 2008;Qian et al, 2009;Wang et al, 2011;Wang et al, 2014;Wu et al, 2016).…”