Age-dependent immune responses in COVID-19-mediated liver injury: focus on cytokines

Abstract

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is potentially pathogenic and causes severe symptoms; in addition to respiratory syndromes, patients might experience other severe conditions such as digestive complications and liver complications injury. The abnormality in the liver is manifested by hepatobiliary dysfunction and enzymatic elevation, which is associated with morbidity and mortality. The direct cytopathic effect, immune dysfunction, cytokine storm, and adverse effects of therapeutic regimens have a crucial role in the severity of liver injury. According to aging and immune system alterations, cytokine patterns may also change in the elderly. Moreover, hyperproduction of cytokines in the inflammatory response to SARS-CoV-2 can lead to multi-organ dysfunction. The mortality rate in elderly patients, particularly those with other comorbidities, is also higher than in adults. Although the pathogenic effect of SARS-CoV-2 on the liver has been widely studied, the impact of age and immune-mediated responses at different ages remain unclear. This review discusses the association between immune system responses in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) patients of different ages and liver injury, focusing on cytokine alterations.

Increased Expression of lncRNA AC000120.7 and SENP3-EIF4A1 in Patients with Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Induced by SARS-CoV-2 Infection: A Pilot Study

“…Notably, our observations unveiled the presence of a range of genes linked to inflammation and COVID-19, such as IL-6, basigin, and MMP9. This discovery aligns with the extensive exploration by various researchers into the role of cytokines in the pathophysiology of COVID-19 infection [ 18 , 19 ]. Furthermore, a study conducted by Springall and collaborators revealed an intriguing association of IL-6, MMP9, and other cytokines with CD147, a molecule proposed as a potential entry point for the host receptor in COVID-19 [ 20 ].…”

Landscape of infiltrated immune cell characterization in COVID-19

“…information on severity associated with COVID-19 is missing in GSE152641, GSE171110. Finally, it is worth noting that according to related research, ACE2 is expressed in multiple human organs, which means that the COVID-19 virus can infect other organs other than the lungs [ 57 ]. This finding suggests that we need to consider the effects of other organs when studying the immune patterns of COVID-19 and assessing the severity of the disease.…”

Single-Cell RNA Sequencing Reveals Alterations in Patient Immune Cells with Pulmonary Long COVID-19 Complications

“…These cells release neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), which, although designed to ensnare pathogens, can cause damage to host tissues and contribute to the hyperinflammation observed in severe cases of COVID-19. Also, the severity of the disease can be linked to the overproduction of pro-inflammatory factors that in turn can lead to various organ injuries and even failure [8]. Nonetheless, the exact role of neutrophil populations in such severe long COVID-19 patients still remains to be elucidated.…”

“…Single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) is a powerful tool that enables the analysis of the whole transcriptome within each cell individually [8]. The data obtained from scRNA-seq allows us to quantify and represent the expression of genes present within the individual cells of a sample, such as mononuclear cells from the peripheral blood samples of patients [10].…”