Against the Odds: A Structural Equation Analysis of Family Resilience Processes during Paternal Incarceration

Abstract

On any given day, approximately 2.1 million children in Europe have an incarcerated parent. Although research indicates that material hardship is associated with parental incarceration, and particularly paternal incarceration, little is known about family processes that may mitigate the harmful effects of such hardship on children with an incarcerated parent. Guided by a resilience framework, this study examined how family processes mediate the effects of material hardship on youth academic adjustment within the context of paternal incarceration. Using Danish data that assessed key family constructs, structural equation modeling was used to perform a mediational within-group analysis of primary caregivers (n = 727) to children with an incarcerated father. Results indicate that although social support and parenting skills did not yield mediating effects, caregiver mental health strongly mediated the effects of material hardship on youth academic adjustment during paternal incarceration. Findings suggest that economic conditions, as well as caregiver mental health symptoms, are important areas of intervention that may promote family-level resilience for youth of an imprisoned father. We conclude with research and practice recommendations to advance our understanding of resilience among families with an incarcerated parent.

Struggle Outside Jails: Scoping Review of Impacts and Resiliency Among Children of Incarcerated Parents

“…Some articles mentioned mental health problems (Bomysoad & Francis, 2022;Johnson et al, 2018;Kjellstrand et al, 2020;Kremer et al, 2020;Li & Ang, 2019;Morgan et al, 2021;Pfluger et al, 2023), effects on school connectedness and academic outcomes (Bomysoad & Francis, 2022;Kjellstrand et al, 2020;Long et al, 2022;Nichols et al, 2016), behavior problems and juvenile delinquency (Bomysoad & Francis, 2022;Johnson et al, 2022;Kjellstrand et al, 2020;Kremer et al, 2020;Li & Ang, 2019;Morgan et al, 2021;Pfluger et al, 2023), financial hardship (Bomysoad & Francis, 2022;Johnson et al, 2018;Morgan et al, 2021), stigmatization and discriminatory social treatment (Johnson et al, 2018;Li & Ang, 2019;Long et al, 2022;Morgan et al, 2021), and family dysfunction (Johnson et al, 2018;Kjellstrand et al, 2020;Kremer et al, 2020;Long et al, 2022;Nichols et al, 2016). Additionally, inclusion articles also describe the resilience of children with incarcerated parents (Bomysoad & Francis, 2022;Johnson et al, 2018;Kjellstrand et al, 2020;Kremer et al, 2020;Long et al, 2022;Morgan et al, 2021;Nichols et al, 2016;Pfluger e...…”

“…The main impact for children with incarcerated parents mentioned by many articles is mental health problems. The mental health problems they face are psychological stress and trauma (Morgan et al, 2021), depression (Bomysoad & Francis, 2022;Johnson et al, 2018;Kremer et al, 2020;Morgan et al, 2021), anxiety (Bomysoad & Francis, 2022;Morgan et al, 2021), hyperactivity (Bomysoad & Francis, 2022;Kremer et al, 2020), self-withdrawal (Kremer et al, 2020), narcissism (Li & Ang, 2019), callous-unemotional traits (Li & Ang, 2019), low selfesteem (Kjellstrand et al, 2020) feelings of isolation (Morgan et al, 2021); and suicidal tendencies (Kjellstrand et al, 2020;Pfluger et al, 2023).…”

“…Hunger and food insecurity are also problems faced by children with incarcerated parents (Benninger et al, 2023). Furthermore, children tend to have low self-esteem, excessive anxiety, feelings of isolation, shame, and insecurity, severe sensation of loss (Andrés-Romero et al, 2021), experience developmental delays (Marie-Mitchell et al, 2019), potential for addictive substance use (Morgan et al, 2021), as well as the emergence of antisocial behavior and behavior problems in children, followed by vulnerable health conditions and disturbed well-being (Arditti & Johnson, 2020;Luther, 2015). Trauma also tends to be felt by children (Arditti & Savla, 2015;Morgan et al, 2021).…”

“…Furthermore, children tend to have low self-esteem, excessive anxiety, feelings of isolation, shame, and insecurity, severe sensation of loss (Andrés-Romero et al, 2021), experience developmental delays (Marie-Mitchell et al, 2019), potential for addictive substance use (Morgan et al, 2021), as well as the emergence of antisocial behavior and behavior problems in children, followed by vulnerable health conditions and disturbed well-being (Arditti & Johnson, 2020;Luther, 2015). Trauma also tends to be felt by children (Arditti & Savla, 2015;Morgan et al, 2021). Then, children may receive discriminatory treatment because of the stigma regarding parental incarceration and face academic problems which include degradation of academic performance, suspension, dropout, and delays in completing education (Balu & Rathnasabapathy, 2021;Luther, 2015).…”

Phenomenology of Incarcerated Mothers: What About Their Children?

“…The result of this study is desperately needed to better address the issues faced by these children with incarcerated mothers who are more likely to experience socioemotional problems and disorders such as depression, anxiety, and delinquent conduct. Families with an incarcerated parent are often caught in a cycle where cumulative disadvantage predicts carceral involvement which worsens economic and family well-being over time (Morgan et al, 2021).…”