African American Fathers in Low Income, Urban Families: Development, Behavior, and Home Environment of Their Three‐Year‐Old Children

Abstract

This study examined the relationship between paternal roles, regardless of residence, and the well-being of 175 3-year-old children from low income, African American families. There were no differences in children's cognition, receptive language, behavior, or home environment related to father presence. Fathers (or father figures) were identified in 73% of the families, and 64% participated in an interview and videotaped observation. The relationships between paternal roles (parenting satisfaction, economic support, nurturance during play, child care, and household responsibilities) and children's cognitive skills, receptive language, behavior, and home environment were examined. After controlling for maternal age, education, and parenting satisfaction, there were significant relationships between paternal roles and each index of children's well-being, suggesting that fathers' contributions were unique. Fathers who were satisfied with parenting, contributed financially to the family, and were nurturant during play had children with better cognitive and language competence; fathers who were satisfied with parenting and employed, had children with fewer behavior problems; and when fathers were living with the child, the home was more child-centered. Neither the biological relationship of the father nor the parents' marital status entered into the models. These findings support ecological theories linking paternal involvement with children's well-being and argue for the institution of family-oriented policies that promote positive father involvement.

Growing Points for Coparenting Theory and Research

“…It involves far more than just the carrying out of childcare responsibilities (McHale, 1995;McHale & Fivaz-Depeursinge, 1999;McHale, Khazan, et al, 2002;McHale, Lauretti, Talbot, & Pouquette, 2002), proceeding even when fathers never change a diaper, warm a bottle, or get up with a colicky child at night. Indeed, coparenting can proceed in families where the child's father does not reside with the child's mother at all (Ahrons, 1981;Black, Dubowitz, & Starr, 1999;Coley & Chase-Lansdale, 1999;Lerman, 1993;Maccoby, Depner, & Mnookin, 1990), as well as in families without fathers (Apfel & Seitz, 1991Patterson, 2002;Patterson et al, 2004) or mothers (Hamer & Marchioro, 2002;Hilton & Macari, 1997;Silverstein, 2002). To be sure, the division of childcare labor can provide a very important window into family commerce, as illustrated poignantly by Patterson et al (2004).…”

African American Father Involvement and Preschool Children's School Readiness

“…In a review of African American fathering studies, Coley (2001) indicated that paternal involvement is most consistently linked with children's positive cognitive development and school functioning, though it also appears to be associated with socioemotional development. For example, lowincome African American households that included a father who provided financial contributions, was satisfied with parenting and showed nurturance during play had children with greater cognitive and receptive language skills (Black, Dubowitz & Starr, 1999). Father presence and responsiveness during play have also been associated with better cognitive competence for urban toddlers (Shannon, Tamis-LeMonda, London, & Cabrera, 2002), while father presence, supportiveness, sensitivity, and parenting satisfaction have been related to reduced child behavior problems, better socialization, and a stronger sense of perceived social competence (Black et al, 1999;Dubowitz et al, 2001;Kelley, Smith, Green, Berndt, & Rogers, 1998).…”

“…For example, lowincome African American households that included a father who provided financial contributions, was satisfied with parenting and showed nurturance during play had children with greater cognitive and receptive language skills (Black, Dubowitz & Starr, 1999). Father presence and responsiveness during play have also been associated with better cognitive competence for urban toddlers (Shannon, Tamis-LeMonda, London, & Cabrera, 2002), while father presence, supportiveness, sensitivity, and parenting satisfaction have been related to reduced child behavior problems, better socialization, and a stronger sense of perceived social competence (Black et al, 1999;Dubowitz et al, 2001;Kelley, Smith, Green, Berndt, & Rogers, 1998). Though yet to be established in a low-income, preschool sample, there is emerging evidence that father behavior is linked to emotional regulatory abilities for slightly older children in middle class families (McDowell, Kim, O'Neil, & Parke, 2002).…”

Do Fathers Just Want to Have Fun?

“…On average, fathers play more physically than mothers, but most types of parent-infant play occur with both fathers and mothers and with similar amounts of affection, object play, physical play, and conventional play interaction [Goldberg, Clarke-Stewart, Rice, & Dellis 2002;Laflamme, Pomerleau, & Malcuit, 2002]. Fathers and young children typically do more rough-and-tumble play, but they also play together with toys in ways that support children's language and cognitive development [Black, Dubowitz, & Starr, 1999;Goldberg et al, 2002;Roggman, Boyce, Cook, Christiansen, & Jones, 2004;Shannon, Tamis-LeMonda, London, & Cabrera, 2002]. Even in studies where fathers are allowed to play however they want, without toys provided or any particular activities suggested, fathers' play varies from quiet didactic or pretend play with toys to rowdy rambunctious physical play [Roggman et al, 2002].…”