Adverse Effects of Amphetamines on the Cardiovascular System: Review and Retrospective Analyses of Trends

Abstract

Background: Amphetamine and amphetamine-type stimulants are powerful physical and psychostimulants; they are phenethylamine derivatives. The use of amphetamines can be either medicinal or illicit. Several amphetamines have been redesigned into illegal drugs of potent properties, also known as research chemicals and designer drugs. Hence, they are named novel (new) psychoactive substances (NPS). Materials and Methods:This study is a hybrid study of; data crunching and retrospective analysis of a trends database (1), and a systematic review of literature in relation to the amphetamines-induced adverse effects on the cardiovascular system (2). Google Trends database has been analysed in retrospect (2012)(2013)(2014)(2015)(2016)(2017) to evaluate the attentiveness of surface web users towards amphetamine and a potent renowned amphetamine derivative known as captagon (fenethylline).Results: Amphetamines appear to be highly popular worldwide, particularly in the developed world including North America and European countries, and to a less extent in the developing countries including the Middle East. However, the trends are oscillating with time with significant year-to-year changes although there was some steadiness in the temporal patterns (trends), for example in 2013-2014 (p-value=0.258). Variations in the trends were found to be correlated with global events including international terrorism. The adverse effects of amphetamines were found to be highly related to the cardiovascular system with a high incidence of intoxications and deaths among substance (ab)users. Conclusion:Several amphetamines are potent and used illicitly beyond their original therapeutic potential, as in the case of captagon, culminating in monumental public and economic threats. Legalising bodies should exercise tremendous and systematic efforts to counteract these threats. Database analyses can provide an accurate insight into this phenomenon that has been growing exponentially in the past decade.

The Clinical Presentations of Nitrous Oxide Users in an Emergency Department

“…Recreational N 2 O abuse leads to ischemic stroke, myocardial infarction, and venous thrombosis in adolescents which are previously reported [ 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 ]. Concerning concomitant illicit drug use, amphetamine and its derivatives are stimulants which have profound effects on the cardiovascular and cerebrovascular systems leading to tachycardia, arrhythmia, vasoconstriction, and hypertension [ 30 ]. Amphetamine may cause congestive heart failure, accelerate atherosclerosis, and is associated with myocardial infarction and aortic dissection [ 31 ].…”

PTSD as a Risk Factor Predicting Polydrug Use: A Dual Systems of Self-Control Mediation Model

“…Polydrug use is the use of multiple different types of drugs and PTSD is associated with increased risk for this outcome as well (Alvarez-Alonso et al, 2016; Mills et al, 2005). Considering that different substances are associated with increased risk for different health outcomes (Al-Imam, 2017; Ames et al, 2020; Darke et al, 2016), one could stand to reason that using multiple types of drugs in a given time span would place individuals at greater risk for a variety of health consequences. Furthermore, estimates indicate that prevalence rates of polydrug use may be as high as between 18% and 33% (depending on the country and population of interest) among substance users (Collins et al, 1998; Font-Mayolas et al, 2013; Karjalainen et al, 2017).…”