Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) associated with reduced cognitive flexibility in both college and community samples

Abstract

The prefrontal cortex is sensitive to stress experiences and significantly impacted by early life adversity. Cognitive flexibility is an executive function that is associated with positive outcomes in adulthood and implicated in activity in the prefrontal cortex. The relationship between early life adversity and cognitive flexibility is underreported. Using the cumulative risk model, we conducted two studies to examine the association between early life adversity and cognitive flexibility in college students and adults (cumulative N = 510). Exposure to early life adversity was assessed using the adverse childhood experiences scale (ACEs). Cognitive flexibility was assessed using the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST). Additionally, as perceived chronic stress is associated with impaired prefrontal cortex function, we measured that as well. Higher number of ACEs was correlated with lower number of completed categories on the WCST in both college students and adults. Perceived chronic stress was not associated with cognitive flexibility, but did correlate positively with ACEs. Individuals with a higher number of ACEs were also more likely to report higher levels of perceived chronic stress. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that exposure to adverse childhood experiences predicted lower scores on completed categories. Our findings provide further evidence that individuals with early life adversity exhibit reduced cognitive flexibility in adulthood.

Early life adversity as a risk factor for cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease

“…To gain more insights into the relationship between the number of ELA exposures and negative outcome expectations, scales with high internal consistency, validity, and test-retest reliability have been developed and employed in several cross-sectional studies. These studies showed that greater ELA exposure is associated with compromised cognitive flexibility, processing speed, and working memory [ 74 , 75 ]. Moreover, these negative consequences may be amplified in subjects with depression, as evidenced by smaller orbitofrontal cortex and hippocampal volumes compared to never-depressed individuals [ 74 ].…”

Outcomes of adverse childhood experience during late adolescence: Evidence from college and community samples

“…It was conducted in two colleges and public places, such as parks and malls, from two regions in Saudi Arabia. Both community‐based and college‐based samples were included because most previous studies recruited a college‐based sample (Corcoran & McNulty, 2018; Kelifa et al, 2021), which tends to be a homogenous, nonrepresentative sample in terms of ACEs exposure (Kalia et al, 2021). Thus, including community‐based and college‐based samples can mitigate the existing limitation in the literature.…”

Association of adverse childhood experiences with anemia in older Chinese: Guangzhou Biobank Cohort Study

“…As a nonspecific, comorbid manifestation of these chronic diseases 11 – 13 , it is hypothesized that ACEs may also lead to anemia in older people. Furthermore, ACEs was associated with higher levels of adulthood psychological stress 14 , 15 , and the latter could subsequently lead to anemia 16 . Notably, a study showed that children with domestic violence were more likely to be anemic, suggesting that childhood psychological stress might play a role in the pathogenesis of anemia 17 .…”