Advances in Use of Nanomaterials for Musculoskeletal Regeneration

Abstract

Since the worldwide incidence of bone disorders and cartilage damage has been increasing and traditional therapy has reached its limits, nanomaterials can provide a new strategy in the regeneration of bones and cartilage. The nanoscale modifies the properties of materials, and many of the recently prepared nanocomposites can be used in tissue engineering as scaffolds for the development of biomimetic materials involved in the repair and healing of damaged tissues and organs. In addition, some nanomaterials represent a noteworthy alternative for treatment and alleviating inflammation or infections caused by microbial pathogens. On the other hand, some nanomaterials induce inflammation processes, especially by the generation of reactive oxygen species. Therefore, it is necessary to know and understand their effects in living systems and use surface modifications to prevent these negative effects. This contribution is focused on nanostructured scaffolds, providing a closer structural support approximation to native tissue architecture for cells and regulating cell proliferation, differentiation, and migration, which results in cartilage and bone healing and regeneration.

Advances in Nanostructures for Antimicrobial Therapy

“…The advantage of organic materials is their biocompatibility and the possibility of biodegradation to non-toxic products that can be eliminated from the body. These organic materials consist mainly of various polymers, natural (chitosan [ 125 , 126 , 127 , 128 , 129 , 130 , 131 , 132 , 133 , 134 , 135 ], alginate (ALG) [ 125 , 126 , 127 , 129 , 130 , 136 ], cellulose [ 125 , 126 , 127 , 129 , 131 , 137 , 138 , 139 ], starch [ 125 , 127 , 140 , 141 ], gelatin [ 125 , 126 , 127 , 129 , 130 , 142 ], hyaluronic acid (HA) [ 132 , 133 ], collagen [ 132 , 133 ]) or synthetic, e.g., poly(L-lactic acid) (PLA) [ 125 , 126 , 127 , 128 , 129 , 130 , 131 , 132 , 133 , 143 ], poly(D,L-lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) [ …”

“…These inorganic carriers are usually functionalized with the above-mentioned organic polymers, resulting in hybrid NCs, in which active molecules are trapped. Depending on the used material, different NCs are formed, such as liposomes/lipid-based delivery systems, polymeric NPs (micelles, spheres, capsules), dendrimers, polymeric complex NPs, CDs, nanocrystals, electrospun nanofibers, electro-sprayed NPs, nano-spray dried particles, covalent organic frameworks, hydrogels, inorganic nanosystems (quantum dots, carbon based NPs) [ 41 , 45 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 117 , 118 , 119 , 120 , 125 , 126 , 127 , 128 , 129 , 130 , 131 , 132 , 133 , 143 ]. Table 1 provides an overview of the types of nanoformulations discussed and their basic building blocks, while Figure 2 , Figure 3 , Figure 4 and Figure 5 illustrate the individual anti-infective drugs listed in this review.…”

“…NLCs contain both solid and liquid lipids as a core matrix stabilized by surfactants. NLCs that are popular as drug carrier nanosystems due to their biocompatibility, similarly to other lipid NCs such as liposomes, SLNPs, or liquid crystalline nanoparticles (LCNPs) [ 126 , 127 , 128 , 129 , 130 , 131 , 132 , 133 , 134 , 135 , 136 , 137 , 138 , 139 , 140 , 141 , 142 , 143 ].…”

“…CS [ 125 , 126 , 127 , 128 , 129 , 130 , 131 , 132 , 133 , 134 , 135 ], a natural high-molecular-weight linear polycationic heteropolysaccharide that is extracted from shrimp and crab shells and is also found in insect cuticles or in the cell walls of Zygomycetes , is characterized with low toxicity [ 134 , 135 , 194 ]. Positively charged NH 2 groups of CS, which interact electrostatically with negatively charged groups situated on the surface of bacteria and fungi, increase the permeability of microbial membranes, leading in some cases evenly to cell death.…”

“…Spherical self-assembled oleylamine grafted HA [ 132 , 133 ] polymersomes with bilayered morphology encapsulating VAN with sizes 196.1–360.9 nm and a negative zeta potential exhibited sustained drug release for 72 h, and showed a more powerful impact on MRSA membrane and pronouncedly higher antibacterial activity against MRSA than free drug (IC 50 of 1.9 μg/mL vs 7.8 μg/mL), resulting in higher cell death [ 247 ]. Polyelectrolyte complexes of colistin with HA, showing a size of 210–250 nm and a zeta-potential of −19 mV, released 45% and 85% of colistin in 15 and 60 min, respectively, compared to complete (100%) release of drug in 15 min, whereby the antibacterial activity against P. aeruginosa (MIC of 1 μg/mL) did not differ from that of the pure drug [ 248 ].…”