Advances in InGaAsP-based avalanche diode single photon detectors

Abstract

In this Topical Review, we survey the state-of-the-art of single photon detectors based on avalanche diodes fabricated in the InGaAsP materials system for photon counting at near infrared wavelengths in the range from 0.9–1.6 mm. The fundamental trade-off between photon detection efficiency and dark count rate can now be managed with performance that adequately serves many applications, with low dark count rates of ~ 1 kHz having been demonstrated at photon detection efficiencies of 20% for 25 mm diameter fiber-coupled devices with thermoelectric cooling. Timing jitter of less than 50 ps has been achieved, although device uniformity is shown to be essential in obtaining good jitter performance. Progress is also reported towards resolving the limitations imposed on photon counting rate by afterpulsing, with at least 50MHz repetition frequencies demonstrated for 1 ns gated operation with afterpulsing limited to the range of 1–5%. We also present a discussion of future trends and challenges related to these devices organized according to the hierarchy of materials properties, device design concepts, signal processing and electronic circuitry, and multiplexing concepts. Whereas the materials properties of these devices may pose significant challenges for the foreseeable future, there has been considerable\ud progress in device concepts and circuit solutions towards the present imperatives for higher counting rates and simpler device operation

1550 nm InGaAs/InAlAs single photon avalanche diode at room temperature

“…Based on planar device structure of telecommunication avalanche photodiodes (APDs), the current SPADs use InGaAs and InP for their absorption region and avalanche region, respectively [5][6][7]. Guard ring and double zinc-diffusion (to define the p-region), as in those used in InGaAs/InP APDs, are employed to suppress edge breakdown in these SPADs.…”

Free-running InGaAs single photon detector with 1 dark count per second at 10% efficiency

“…Over the temperature range tested, the DCR reduces by over two orders of magnitude, which shows that the dark carrier generation is dominated by a thermally driven ShockleyRead-Hall (SRH) process. 10 We expect that the trap-assisted tunnelling limit is near being reached, since the DCR reduction is not constant with each temperature step. At À110 C, a DCR of 1.19 6 0.04 cps was obtained for a detection efficiency of 11.5 6 0.3%, which is nearly two orders of magnitude lower than previously demonstrated for free-running InGaAs detectors.…”

“…10 Typically, SPADs have a relatively large trap-assisted tunnelling contribution; hence, it is often sufficient to only cool the devices to rather moderate temperatures, to reduce the thermal contribution well below the former effect. However, recent improvements to InGaAs material quality and careful consideration of the SPAD device structure 11 have effectively reduced the contribution of the dark count generation through the tunnelling process.…”

Risk Analysis of Trojan-Horse Attacks on Practical Quantum Key Distribution Systems

“…Moreover, just like for the monitoring detector, the quantum efficiency of an SPAD is also a function of the wavelength of light impinging upon them. Typically, SPADs are designed to have their peak efficiency of detection in the telecom wavelength bands [38]. Although the physics that explains the concept of efficiency differs from that of afterpulsing, a lowered efficiency at a wavelength longer than the peak wavelength (i.e., λ > 1550 nm) should also imply a lower probability of afterpulsing.…”