Advancements in Lithium–Oxygen Batteries: A Comprehensive Review of Cathode and Anode Materials

Abstract

As modern society continues to advance, the depletion of non-renewable energy sources (such as natural gas and petroleum) exacerbates environmental and energy issues. The development of green, environmentally friendly energy storage and conversion systems is imperative. The energy density of commercial lithium-ion batteries is approaching its theoretical limit, and even so, it struggles to meet the rapidly growing market demand. Lithium–oxygen batteries have garnered significant attention from researchers due to their exceptionally high theoretical energy density. However, challenges such as poor electrolyte stability, short cycle life, low discharge capacity, and high overpotential arise from the sluggish kinetics of the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) during discharge and the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) during charging. This article elucidates the fundamental principles of lithium–oxygen batteries, analyzes the primary issues currently faced, and summarizes recent research advancements in air cathodes and anodes. Additionally, it proposes future directions and efforts for the development of lithium–air batteries.