Advanced Glycation End-Products (AGEs): Formation, Chemistry, Classification, Receptors, and Diseases Related to AGEs

Abstract

Advanced glycation end-products (AGEs) constitute a non-homogenous, chemically diverse group of compounds formed either exogeneously or endogeneously on the course of various pathways in the human body. In general, they are formed non-enzymatically by condensation between carbonyl groups of reducing sugars and free amine groups of nucleic acids, proteins, or lipids, followed by further rearrangements yielding stable, irreversible end-products. In the last decades, AGEs have aroused the interest of the scientific community due to the increasing evidence of their involvement in many pathophysiological processes and diseases, such as diabetes, cancer, cardiovascular, neurodegenerative diseases, and even infection with the SARS-CoV-2 virus. They are recognized by several cellular receptors and trigger many signaling pathways related to inflammation and oxidative stress. Despite many experimental research outcomes published recently, the complexity of their engagement in human physiology and pathophysiological states requires further elucidation. This review focuses on the receptors of AGEs, especially on the structural aspects of receptor–ligand interaction, and the diseases in which AGEs are involved. It also aims to present AGE classification in subgroups and to describe the basic processes leading to both exogeneous and endogeneous AGE formation.

An In-Depth Study on the Metabolite Profile and Biological Properties of Primula auriculata Extracts: A Fascinating Sparkle on the Way from Nature to Functional Applications

“…The method based on the Maillard reaction [ 36 ] was used to determine the AGE inhibition activity of EtOH, and EtOH/water extracts were obtained from the aerial parts and rhizomes of P. auriculata at a working concentration of 1 mg/mL. Distilled water was used to prepare the working concentration of P. auriculata .…”

“…Distilled water was used to prepare the working concentration of P. auriculata . The experimental procedure was reported in detail in our previous studies, and different concentrations of quercetin were used as a reference material [ 33 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 ].…”

“…Thus, 32 was related to 7,4 -dihydroxyflavone O-hexoside-O-ethylmaleate (Table 2). In addition, seven diglycosides (33)(34)(35)(36)(37)(38)(39) and four triglycosides (40)(41)(42)(43) were tentatively identified in the studied Primula extracts (Table 2). Compounds 6,9,11,12,13,16,17,22,24,26,30,31,33,35,37,and 38 were identified by comparison with authentic standards.…”

“…3.6.2. AGE Inhibition Activity of Primula auriculata AGE, a product of the Maillard reaction, is also one of the cancer markers that emerges as a result of the increased amount of cellular ROS [36,78,79]. In this context, it is hypothesized that if the model plant P. auriculata of the study has an AGE inhibition effect, it will play a crucial role in the cancerization process and in the prevention of the metastasis of the disease.…”

Advanced Glycation End Products: Do They Impair Bone Health in Diabetes?

“…AGEs undergo extracellular proteolysis followed up by intracellular uptake by tissue macrophages and are finally excreted by the kidneys [4]. AGEs bind to several receptors (RAGE), and their interaction has been often studied [4,5]. Importantly, AGEs are involved in the progression of DM complications, such as diabetic nephropathy and neuropathy [4,6].…”