Adolescents' reference-group choices, self-esteem, and adjustment.

Abstract

Three hundred thirty Black, Hispanic, Asian, and White high school students reported their reference-group label as mainstream, bicultural, or strongly ethnically identified. Compared with other groups, White students were significantly more likely to be mainstream. Across ethnic groups, students reporting a strong ethnic identification held attitudes that were significantly more separatist, reported more ethnic pride, engaged in less cross-ethnic contact out of school, reported more cross-ethnic conflict, and used English significantly less often than other reference groups. Reference-group label was not associated with significant ethnic differences in self-esteem, social competence, or grade point average. The generational status of minority students is discussed as a potential influence mediating the impact of reference group on adjustment.

Acculturation, Internalizing Mental Health Symptoms, and Self-Esteem: Cultural Experiences of Latino Adolescents in North Carolina

“…Moreover, other investigators have shown that, as compared to low-and high-assimilated families, bicultural families displayed significantly lower levels of conflict and demonstrated more commitment, help, and support among family members [34]. However, not all studies support biculturalism as a cultural asset, and at least one study has reported that bicultural identity was not related to self-esteem, social competence, or academic performance [35]. Although most investigations show that biculturalism may be a promising cultural asset, clearly further research is needed to fully illuminate its effects.…”

Influence of Risk Factors and Cultural Assets on Latino Adolescents’ Trajectories of Self-Esteem and Internalizing Symptoms

“…More recently, a research team reported that, when compared to low-and high-assimilated families, bicultural families displayed significantly lower levels of conflict and demonstrated more commitment, help, and support among family members [28]. On the other hand, Rotheram-Borus [29] reported that bicultural identity was not related to self-esteem, social competence, or grades in a multiethnic sample of 330 ninth and tenth graders. Most recently, Smokowski and Bacallao [7] reported that biculturalism and familism were cultural assets associated with fewer internalizing problems and increased self-esteem.…”

Ethnic Self-Identification and Psychological Well-Being among Minority Youth in the Netherlands

“…As a result, identification was studied as an either-or phenomenon and the possibility of a bicultural identity was disregarded. More recent studies argue that in a situation where subjects are free to describe themselves, they do not always use this dichotomeous scheme of ethnic identification (Hutnik, 1991;Rotheram-Borus, 1990;Ullah, 1987). For instance, Hutnik (1986) has shown that Indian girls living in Britain can adopt one of four types of self-identification: 1) dissociative, where one sees oneself as predominantly belonging to one's own ethnic group; 2) assimilative, where one identifies predominantly with the majority group; 3) acculturative, where one identifies both with one's ethnic minority group and with the majority group; 4) marginal, where one identifies with neither one's own group nor with the majority.…”