“…Longitudinal studies, on the other hand, are less conclusive. Some studies have indicated that overweight and obese adolescents are more likely than non-overweight/obese adolescents to initiate smoking or become regular smokers (Caria, Bellocco, Zambon, Horton, & Galanti, 2009; Cawley, Markowitz, & Tauras, 2004; Hussaini, Nicholson, Shera, Stettler, & Kinsman, 2011; Lanza, Grella, & Chung, 2014). Conversely, other studies have shown that adolescent obesity is linked to lower risk of cigarette smoking initiation or generally not associated with future problematic substance use (Austin & Gortmaker, 2001; Mustillo, Worthman, Erkanli, Keeler, & Angold 2003; Pasch, Velazquez, Cance, Moe, & Lytle, 2012).…”