Additive Manufactured Magnesium-Based Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering

Abstract

Additive manufacturing (AM) is an important technology that led to a high evolution in the manufacture of personalized implants adapted to the anatomical requirements of patients. Due to a worldwide graft shortage, synthetic scaffolds must be developed. Regarding this aspect, biodegradable materials such as magnesium and its alloys are a possible solution because the second surgery for implant removal is eliminated. Magnesium (Mg) exhibits mechanical properties, which are similar to human bone, biodegradability in human fluids, high biocompatibility, and increased ability to stimulate new bone formation. A current research trend consists of Mg-based scaffold design and manufacture using AM technologies. This review presents the importance of biodegradable implants in treating bone defects, the most used AM methods to produce Mg scaffolds based on powder metallurgy, AM-manufactured implants properties, and in vitro and in vivo analysis. Scaffold properties such as biodegradation, densification, mechanical properties, microstructure, and biocompatibility are presented with examples extracted from the recent literature. The challenges for AM-produced Mg implants by taking into account the available literature are also discussed.

3D-Printed Magnesium Peroxide-Incorporated Scaffolds with Sustained Oxygen Release and Enhanced Photothermal Performance for Osteosarcoma Multimodal Treatments

“…Using 3D-printed magnesium composite scaffolds, which have been presented as an important approach for bone defect repair, Xu et al found that both platelet-derived growth factor BB (PDGF-BB) and BMP2 expression were upregulated, thereby displaying excellent osteogenetic, angiogenetic, and mechanical properties . Besides, the alkaline environment formed during Mg 2+ release also increases osteoblast-mediated mineral deposition and inhibits osteoclast activity, thus accelerating bone regeneration . Consequently, the oxygen and Mg 2+ released in response to MgO 2 implantation can effectively promote the subsequent bone defect repair process and play a dual synergistic role.…”

“…55 Besides, the alkaline environment formed during Mg 2+ release also increases osteoblast-mediated mineral deposition and inhibits osteoclast activity, thus accelerating bone regeneration. 56 Consequently, the oxygen and Mg 2+ released in response to MgO 2 implantation can effectively promote the subsequent bone defect repair process and play a dual synergistic role. In summary, 3D-printed PCL/nHA/MgO 2 (10%)/PDA scaffolds have great potential as bone grafts for promoting bone regeneration.…”

Recent Developments in Engineered Magnesium Scaffolds for Bone Tissue Engineering

“…Generation of precise pore sizes along with patient specific geometry is one of the major advantages of this technique. Maximum reduction of porosity between the initial CAD design and fabricated scaffold was obtained around 6.1% . Furthermore, this process allowed a 70% average increase in the surface area of the scaffold.…”

“…Maximum reduction of porosity between the initial CAD design and fabricated scaffold was obtained around 6.1%. 76 Furthermore, this process allowed a 70% average increase in the surface area of the scaffold. The major drawbacks of the negative salt pattern fabrication technique are involvement of multiple complicated steps and cost intensiveness.…”

Application and Perspectives: Magnesium Materials in Bone Regeneration

“…100,101 Ding et al proposed some corresponding countermeasures. The team has fabricated a new type of Mg alloy powder with smooth Table 4.…”