“…Recently, technology companies have been using ITE estimation to optimize their marketing efforts [10,39,40,42,43]. There is a growing trend towards using statistical and machine learning methods to estimate ITEs from observational data [1,6,11,21,25,27,[32][33][34]. However, most existing research has focused on the conditional average treatment effect (CATE), which is the average individual treatment effect given certain baseline characteristics.…”