Adaptation and Self-Organization in Primate Societies

Abstract

The primary method by which science endeavors to order the world is the analytic approach, consistent with Cartesian principles of dividing the problem in as many sections as required for an optimal solution, and progressing from the simplest to the most complex reasoning. When the interactions among the various elements of the system being studied are minimal, such a procedure indeed makes it possible to formulate laws that describe chains of causality. However, when the variables are interdependent and linked by non-linear equations, the atomistic method cannot account for the phenomenon in its entirety. Spurred by this inadequacy, scientists sought to discover synthetic methods which, early in the twentieth century, led to the conceptualization of holistic theories in a number of disciplines. The most highly developed fields are the psychology of form, structural anthropology (1)*, and the various systems theories (2). More recently, the development of epigenetic concepts in biology has corresponded to the appearance of different theories of pattern in physics and mathematics (3, 4) and to the progressive emergence of the concept of self-organization (5, 6, 7). The objective is to explain the production of complex structures on the basis of interacting elements, none of which contains a guiding scheme that dictates these structures. In biology, the challenge is to locate the constraints that are expressed in a space of possibilities (8) in order to develop a theory of organization that is capable of predicting the finite number of forms that living creatures can assume (9). This school of thought can be described as structuralist, emergentist, self-organizational, or epigeneticist, depending on the theoretical version that is emphasized.

The Influence of Phylogeny on the Social Behaviour of Macaques (Primates: Cercopithecidae, genusMacaca)

“…Colvin 1983; Caldecott 1986; Datta 1989). The effect of phylogenetic constraints supports the view that many traits related to macaque social organization are inter‐related at epigenetic levels and co‐vary during evolution (Thierry 1990, 1997; 2000). For example, levels of inter‐male tolerance can act on the timing and pattern of male emigration, whereas the formation of alliances among kin can influence female dominance relationships.…”

“…At this stage, it is safe to conclude that the structure of macaque social organization is more closely linked to phylogeny than to the environment. A better understanding of the processes involved in constructing social organization will be needed to integrate phylogenetic information together with the action of ecological pressures (Thierry 1997, 2000).…”

‘Friendship’ for fitness in chimpanzees?

“…In line with Gould (1989) and Gould & Lewontin (1979), we conclude that not every behaviour pattern reflects a separate adaptation with specific fitness benefits. Therefore, it is our belief that the specifics of social relationships may often be better understood as contextual and historical consequences of entanglement between behaviour, ecology and physiology (te Boekhorst & Hogeweg 1994;Hemelrijk 1996Hemelrijk , 1997Hemelrijk , 1999Thierry 1997;Hemelrijk & Luteijn 1998).…”

Primate socioecology, the lost dream of ecological determinism

“…Such interconnections limit the number of structures that can be realized, thus exerting strong stabilizing selection that opposes the adaptive changes possibly required by the ecological milieu. [22][23][24] This may explain why phylogenetic relatedness constrains species' ecological characteristics 25 and predicts a fair amount of social diversity. 26 Dominance asymmetry, nepotism, coalition formation, and dispersal, the characters of female social relationships considered in the synthetic model, are just those found to be the most conservative in the evolutionary history of Old World monkeys.…”

“…Some authors previously expressed doubts about the deterministic ends of socioecology. 6,22,28,29 It appears at present that the synthetic model is not repairable. We must give up the dream of a comprehensive model that will encompass all primate societies.…”