Active pharmaceutical ingredients entering the aquatic environment from wastewater treatment works: A cause for concern?

Abstract

This work reports on the variation in wastewater treatment works (WwTW) influent concentrations of a wide variety of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs), their removal efficiency, effluent concentrations and potential risks to the aquatic environment. The research is based on data generated from two large UK-wide WwTW monitoring programmes. Taking account of removal of parent compound from the aqueous phase during treatment in combination with estimates of dilution available it is possible to prioritise the APIs of greatest risk of exceeding estimates of predicted no effect concentrations (PNEC) in receiving waters for all WwTW in the UK. The majority of substances studied were removed to a high degree, although with significant variation, both within and between WwTW. Poorer removal (between influent and effluent) was observed for ethinyloestradiol, diclofenac, propranolol, the macrolide antibiotics, fluoxetine, tamoxifen and carbamazepine. All except the last two of these substances were present in effluents at concentrations higher than their respective estimated PNEC (based on measurement of effluents from 45 WwTW on 20 occasions). Based on available dilution data as many as 890 WwTW in the UK (approximately 13% of all WwTW) may cause exceedances of estimated riverine PNECs after mixing of their effluents with receiving waters. The overall degree of risk is driven by the toxicity value selected, which in itself is controlled by the availability of reliable and relevant ecotoxicological data and consequently the safety factors applied. The dataset and discussion, provides information to assist in the future management of these types of chemicals.

Multi-residue ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry method for comprehensive multi-class anthropogenic compounds of emerging concern analysis in a catchment-based exposure-driven study

“…The classes of CECs covered by this method include the following: UV filters, parabens, plasticisers, steroid estrogens, antibacterials/antibiotics, antifungals, hypertension drugs, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), lipid regulators, antihyperlipidaemics, antihypertensives, antihistamines, drugs for erectile dysfunction, drugs for diabetes, cough suppressants, beta blockers, H 2 receptor agonists, X-ray contrast media, drug precursors, anticancer drugs, anaesthetics, antidepressants, anti-epileptics, calcium channel blockers, hypnotics, antipsychotics, drugs for dementia, human indicators, analgesics, stimulants, opioids, drugs used in veterinary medicine, pesticides, fungicides and herbicides and metabolites. The selection of analyte groups was based not only on prioritisation including existing and proposed legislation, European and national watch lists (UKWIR CIP, EU Watch List) [29][30][31][32] and the literature [33,34] but also on exploring usage statistics (NHS prescriptions [35]), entry into the environment (metabolism, excretion from DrugBank [36]), persistence, bioaccumulation, transport throughout the environment and toxicity of organisms [mammals, aquatic and benthic (log K ow , log K oc , log D ow , water solubility, vapour pressure, Henry's law constant, bioconcentration factor, EPI Suite, ACD/Labs [37,38])].…”

Recent advances on the electrochemical transduction techniques for the biosensing of pharmaceuticals in aquatic environments

“…3 The source of these pollutants comprises the human and animal healthcare, which tends to continuously be rising as a function of the advances in the medical treatments, the larger amount of medicines available to combat well known and recently discovered diseases, affordability, the growing number of people in the world and their respective larger life expectancy. 4 Pharmaceuticals and personal care products are considered emerging contaminants, which means that just in the past two decades they have been studied and deeply investigated. Moreover, the fragility of the current analytical tools to detect these molecules at low concentrations hinders the regulation and monitoring of drinking water supplies.…”

Heterogeneous and homogeneous photocatalytic degradation of psychoactive drug Fluvoxamine: kinetic study, inorganic ions and phytotoxicity evaluation

“…Pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs), emerging extensively in ecosystems as pollutants, have become an important environmental and public health issue, since they can contaminate drinking water and pose threats to wildlife and human health . Many studies, following their occurrence and fate, have reported their presence in water, soil, sediment, sludge as well as in drinking water . This is of major concern because PhACs are extensively and increasingly used in human and veterinary medicine, resulting in their continuous release in the environment .…”

“…1,2 Many studies, following their occurrence and fate, have reported their presence in water, soil, sediment, sludge as well as in drinking water. 3,4 This is of major concern because PhACs are extensively and increasingly used in human and veterinary medicine, resulting in their continuous release in the environment. 5 They are mostly introduced in the sewage system through excretion of unmetabolized compounds after medical use or inappropriate disposal 6 and insufficient removal by conventional wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), 7 which are not designed to treat water polluted with pharmaceuticals present at trace levels.…”