Active commuting to school, cognitive performance, and academic achievement: an observational study in Dutch adolescents using accelerometers

Abstract

BackgroundThe current study examined the associations between active commuting to school, cognitive performance, and academic achievement in Dutch adolescents. In addition, it was explored whether these associations were moderated by sex and mediated by depressive symptoms.MethodsStudents in grades 7 and 9 (N = 270; mean age 13.4 years; 53% boys) were included. Active commuting to school was measured objectively by an ActivPAL3™ accelerometer. Cognitive performance was measured by the d2 Test of attention (key components of executive functioning) and the Symbol Digit Modalities Test (information-processing speed). Academic achievement was determined by the mean of the school grades obtained in Dutch, mathematics and English. Depressive symptoms were self-reported.ResultsActive commuting to school constituted 28% of the total amount of time spent moving per week. Active commuting to school was not significantly associated with cognitive performance and academic achievement, overall. However, active commuting to school was positively associated with performance on the d2 Test of attention in girls (β = .17, p = .037), but not in boys (β = −.03, p = .660). The associations were not mediated by depressive symptoms.ConclusionsThe associations between active commuting to school and cognitive performance and academic achievement are weak and might be moderated by sex, while the greatest benefits on cognition due to active commuting to school might be with regard to executive functioning. Future studies might make use of experimental designs, because causal relations between active commuting to school and cognitive performance or academic achievement would provide important implications for both education and public health.

Potential correlates and outcomes of active commuting to school among adolescents

“…The finding of this study that ACS was not related with academic performance is an accordance with one study (Van Dijk et al, 2014) but not with another one (Martínez-Gómez et al, 2011), that found a positive association only in girls. A potential explanation of the lack of findings of analysed outcomes is that adolescents reported their 'usual' methods of commuting to and from school.…”

“…This compared to about 50% in US studies (McDonald et al, 2011). Other European studies have found that about 50% and 65% of youth lived within, respectively, 1 mile (Van Sluijs et al, 2009) and 1.4 miles (Panter et al, 2011), suggesting that more US youth live farther from their schools. Since distance is the most consistent barrier of ACS (Davison et al, 2008;Lu et al, 2014;Pont et al, 2009), this might help to explain the higher prevalence of youth ACS found in this and other European studies (Pooley et al, 2005;Van Sluijs et al, 2009) when compared to US studies, where fewer than 15% of youth are walking and cycling to school (McDonald et al, 2011).…”

“…Other European studies have found that about 50% and 65% of youth lived within, respectively, 1 mile (Van Sluijs et al, 2009) and 1.4 miles (Panter et al, 2011), suggesting that more US youth live farther from their schools. Since distance is the most consistent barrier of ACS (Davison et al, 2008;Lu et al, 2014;Pont et al, 2009), this might help to explain the higher prevalence of youth ACS found in this and other European studies (Pooley et al, 2005;Van Sluijs et al, 2009) when compared to US studies, where fewer than 15% of youth are walking and cycling to school (McDonald et al, 2011). In the present study, regardless of distance to school, the prevalence of one-way and both-ways active commuters was 54%, which supports previous Portuguese research conducted in the North region of Portugal, where the prevalence of ACS varied between 52.6% (Mota et al, 2007) and 70% (Santos et al, 2009).…”

“…age, sex, attitudes, perceived safety, street connectivity) (Davison et al, 2008;Panter et al, 2008;Pont et al, 2009) and relatively little is known about the specific perceived barriers of youth ACS (Carlson et al, 2014;Lu et al, 2014). Despite 'distance to school' being the most consistent correlate of youth ACS (Davison et al, 2008;Lu et al, 2014;Panter et al, 2008;Pont et al, 2009), only a limited number of studies have stratified their analysis by the measure (Carlson et al, 2014;Panter, Jones, van Sluijs, & Griffin, 2011;Van Sluijs et al, 2009).…”

“…Regarding the outcomes, youth ACS has been associated with a healthy weight (Faulkner et al, 2009;Østergaard et al, 2012;Saunders, Green, Petticrew, Steinbach, & Roberts, 2013), and academic performance in a few studies (Martínez-Gómez et al, 2011;Van Dijk, De Groot, Van Acker, Savelberg, & Kirschner, 2014), but results are somewhat inconsistent.…”