Activation Analyses of Authenticated Hairs of Napoleon Bonaparte Confirm Arsenic Poisoning

Abstract

In 1960, activation analyses at the Harwell Nuclear Research Laboratory of the University of Glascow, London of authenticated hairs of Napoleon Bonaparte taken immediately after his death confirmed Napoleon's chronic arsenic poisoning on the island of St. Helena. Timeline correlation of his clinical symptomatology of the preceding 4 months, as reported in the written diaries of his exiled companions, further supports the effect of fluctuating, elevated toxic levels of arsenic on his health. Independent analyses of authenticated hairs of Napoleon by the Toxicology Crime Laboratory of the United States Federal Bureau of Investigation in 1995 reveals toxic levels of arsenic. The successful assassination of Napoleon included both a cosmetic and lethal phase. The cosmetic phase consisted of arsenic poisoning over time to weaken Napoleon, making the associated debility appear to be a natural illness and thus allay any suspicions prior to instituting the lethal phase. On May 3, 1821, at 5:30 P.M., the lethal phase was carried out. Napoleon was given Calomel (HgCl), a cathartic, and a popular orange-flavored drink called orgeat, which was flavored with the oil of bitter almonds. Together they formed mercury cyanide, which is lethal. Napoleon lost consciousness and died two days later.

CHAPTER 17. Arsenic, Antimony and Bismuth

“…In the early days, its toxicity and lethality was recognised in several classical cases of suicide and murder including the mysterious deaths of Francesco de Medici and Bianca Capello in 1587, Hannah Russell who used arsenious oxide to murder her husband in 1826, and Napoleon Bonaparte, who is supposed to have died through chronic arsenic poisoning in St. Helena. [19][20][21] The last issue has been subject to great conjecture but Harwell Nuclear Research Laboratory confirmed that authenticated hair removed from Napoleon did in fact contain arsenic. However, he is believed to have been killed by administration of Calomel (mercuric chloride); it is conceivable that the arsenic in Napoleon's hair may have resulted from the common mortician's practice of adding a pinch of arsenic trioxide as a preservative to hair samples cut as mementoes and/or the use of arsenic-containing hair powder.…”

Mummies

“…U.S. President Andrew Jackson was seemingly exposed to mercury and lead due to therapeutic usage of various compounds (Deppisch et al, 1999); King George III's hair showed high levels of arsenic, again probably due to medication (Cox et al, 2005); and in the case of Franceso I de Medici and his wife, low concentrations of arsenic were found in beard hair, but toxic concentrations in mummified tissue (Mari et al, 2006). Perhaps one of the most comprehensive cases of this kind, in terms of the number of publications, is the finding of arsenic in Napoleon Bonaparte's hair (e.g., Weider and Fournier, 1999;Lin et al, 2004;Kintz et al, 2006).…”

Arsenic in Human History and Modern Societies

“…Although analyses of the green wallpaper from Napoleon's residence suggest that the As(III) concentration was high enough to possibly cause illness, the concentration was probably not sufficient to kill individuals (Jones and Ledingham, 1982). Weider and Fournier (1999) are strongly convinced that Napoleon was murdered with arsenic and mercury. They argue that Napoleon was assassinated in two stages.…”

“…Finally, he was killed with a mixture of calomel (HgCl) and a drink containing bitter almonds, which produced mercuric cyanide in his stomach. Weider and Fournier (1999) believe that Comte de Montholon was the leading suspect in the alleged assassination. In a letter to his wife which refers to one of Napoleon's outdoor pastimes, Montholon supposedly wrote that calomel would soon end Napoleon's 'gardening efforts' (Weider and Fournier, 1999).…”

“…Besides arsenic in hair samples, Weider and Fournier (1999) also list numerous symptoms suffered by Napoleon that they claim are consistent with arsenic poisoning. Nevertheless, other researchers remain unconvinced that arsenic had any role in Napoleon's death.…”