Achieving optimal lipid goals in the metabolic syndrome: A global health problem

Abstract

The metabolic syndrome is defined by a constellation of cardiometabolic risk factors that include abdominal obesity, elevated blood sugar, high blood pressure, low high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol and elevated triglycerides. The metabolic syndrome is diagnosed when 3 of these 5 risk factors are present [1]. Underlying these metabolic risk factors is adipose tissue dysfunction and insulin resistance which leads to an increase in circulating free fatty acids (FFA). Increased FFA delivery to the liver increases hepatic secretion and triglyceride enrichment of very-low density lipoprotein (VLDL) cholesterol. Incomplete lipolysis of VLDL particles leads to an accumulation of triglyceride-rich remnant lipoproteins and triglyceride enrichment of HDL cholesterol via cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) results in smaller HDL particles and low levels of HDL cholesterol [2]. Although lowdensity lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol is not specifically part of the metabolic syndrome, individuals with the metabolic syndrome have a high concentration of small dense LDL cholesterol particles. The atherogenic dyslipidemia associated with the metabolic syndrome is an important risk factor for atherosclerosis and cardiovascular (CV) disease. The presence of the metabolic syndrome is associated with a 2-fold increased risk of CV disease and a 5-fold increased risk of diabetes [3].The prevalence of the metabolic syndrome worldwide is on the rise. This is due to an increase in the rates of obesity in both adults and children, especially in developing countries [4]. Most deaths related to the metabolic syndrome are attributable to CV disease and this is mediated in large part by the hypertension and dyslipidemia associated with the metabolic syndrome. First-line management of the metabolic syndrome is lifestyle intervention; however when lifestyle changes alone are unsuccessful, pharmacologic therapy to target the high blood pressure and dyslipidemia associated with the metabolic syndrome is recommended. Statins are the drug of choice to target the dyslipidemia associated with the metabolic syndrome and are effective in lowering not only LDL cholesterol, but also lower triglyceride-rich remnant lipoproteins and have favorable effects on the size and concentration of LDL cholesterol particles [5]. Post-hoc analyses from several clinical outcome studies have shown that statin therapy reduces major CV event in patients with the metabolic syndrome [6,7] and subgroup analyses from other clinical trials suggest that fibrates, niacin and omega-3 fatty acids may further reduce CV risk in statin treated patients with high triglycerides and low HDL cholesterol [8e10]. Although the new ACC/AHA cholesterol lowering guidelines [11] do not specifically address the metabolic syndrome nor set cholesterol goals for treatment, most individuals who have the metabolic syndrome will have a high CV risk score or other indications that would warrant statin therapy. The National Lipid Association [12] and several international societies [13,14] also ...

The Relationship of Health Literacy and Adherence to Self-care Behaviors in Patients With Metabolic Syndrome

“…Evidence supports the effectiveness of early changes in lifestyle and use of necessary medications in preventing heart diseases and diabetes in the patients with this syndrome and noticeable reduction of their mortality rate with the use of statins [10,11]. Observing these items require the active participation of high-risk patients [12]. So, self-care behavior, including learning and active performance of required skills, is considered as the cornerstone of long-term care management [13].…”

<p>Potential role of phytochemicals in metabolic syndrome prevention and therapy</p>

“…The favorable effects of these diets are thought to be related to their content of bioactive substances, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids 20. Although low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) does not explicitly belong to MetS, subjects with MetS have a high concentration of small dense LDL particles and a low LDL-C/HDL-C ratio,21 both powerful atherogenic risk factors. When lifestyle changes alone are unsuccessful, phytochemicals can contribute to improve lipid profile.…”