A Workflow to Define, Map and Name a Carbonatite- or Alkaline Igneous-Associated REE-HFSE Mineral System: A Case Study from SW Germany

Banks, Graham J.; Walter, Benjamin F.; Marks, Michael A.W.; Siegfried, Pete R.

doi:10.3390/min9020097

Cited by 17 publications

(13 citation statements)

References 59 publications

(106 reference statements)

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“…This includes the complex mineralogy and geometallurgy of alkaline-silicate systems, which must be considered in the development of any exploration model, as well as the environmental and social issues that may be associated with rare element mining. Previous reviews have provided highly valuable summaries of alkalinesilicate systems and their associated mineral deposits (e.g., Verplanck et al, 2014;Dostal, 2016Dostal, , 2017Morgenstern et al, 2017;Banks et al, 2019;Woolley, 2019). We synthesize these and other observations into a generalized scale-dependent mineral systems model (e.g., Knox-Robinson and Wyborn, 1997;McCuaig et al, 2010;McCuaig and Hronsky, 2014), with recommendations on geophysical, geochemical, and geologic techniques to apply during exploration.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Alkaline-Silicate REE-HFSE Systems

et al. 2023

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Development of renewable energy infrastructure requires critical raw materials, such as the rare earth elements (REEs, including scandium) and niobium, and is driving expansion and diversification in their supply chains. Although alternative sources are being explored, the majority of the world’s resources of these elements are found in alkaline-silicate rocks and carbonatites. These magmatic systems also represent major sources of fluorine and phosphorus. Exploration models for critical raw materials are comparatively less well developed than those for major and precious metals, such as iron, copper, and gold, where most of the mineral exploration industry continues to focus. The diversity of lithologic relationships and a complex nomenclature for many alkaline rock types represent further barriers to the exploration and exploitation of REE-high field strength element (HFSE) resources that will facilitate the green revolution. We used a global review of maps, cross sections, and geophysical, geochemical, and petrological observations from alkaline systems to inform our description of the alkaline-silicate REE + HFSE mineral system from continental scale (1,000s km) down to deposit scale (~1 km lateral). Continental-scale targeting criteria include a geodynamic trigger for low-degree mantle melting at high pressure and a mantle source enriched in REEs, volatile elements, and alkalies. At the province and district scales, targeting criteria relate to magmatic-system longevity and the conditions required for extensive fractional crystallization and the residual enrichment of the REEs and HFSEs. A compilation of maps and geophysical data were used to construct an interactive 3-D geologic model (25-km cube) that places mineralization within a depth and horizontal reference frame. It shows typical lithologic relationships surrounding orthomagmatic REE-Nb-Ta-Zr-Hf mineralization in layered agpaitic syenites, roof zone REE-Nb-Ta mineralization, and mineralization of REE-Nb-Zr associated with peralkaline granites and pegmatites. The resulting geologic model is presented together with recommended geophysical and geochemical approaches for exploration targeting, as well as mineral processing and environmental factors pertinent for the development of mineral resources hosted by alkaline-silicate magmatic systems.

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Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Alkaline-Silicate REE-HFSE Systems

et al. 2023

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“…From the information above, it is evident that alkalinecarbonatite complexes were emplaced at the post-collisional stage in many of the world's major orogenic belts, and that many of those complexes are enriched in REE, notably the light REE. In this discussion, we consider the key features of the mineral system at province-and district-scale in order to identify the critical processes governing REE mineralisation in these post-collisional mineral systems (Banks et al, 2019;McCuaig et al, 2010).…”

Section: Post-collisional Alkaline-carbonatite Mineral Systemsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Critical processes for formation of REE deposits associated with post-collisional alkaline-carbonatite complexes at the province scale must include (1) an enriched source for magmas, (2) crustal-scale pathways for magmatic emplacement, and (3) erosion to a suitable level (Banks et al, 2019).…”

Section: Province-scalementioning

confidence: 99%

Carbonatites and Alkaline Igneous Rocks in Post-Collisional Settings: Storehouses of Rare Earth Elements

et al. 2021

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The rare earth elements (REE) are critical raw materials for much of modern technology, particularly renewable energy infrastructure and electric vehicles that are vital for the energy transition. Many of the world’s largest REE deposits occur in alkaline rocks and carbonatites, which are found in intracontinental, rift-related settings, and also in syn- to post-collisional settings. Post-collisional settings host significant REE deposits, such as those of the Mianning-Dechang belt in China. This paper reviews REE mineralisation in syn- to post-collisional alkaline-carbonatite complexes worldwide, in order to demonstrate some of the key physical and chemical features of these deposits. We use three examples, in Scotland, Namibia, and Turkey, to illustrate the structure of these systems. We review published geochemical data and use these to build up a broad model for the REE mineral system in post-collisional alkaline-carbonatite complexes. It is evident that immiscibility of carbonate-rich magmas and fluids plays an important part in generating mineralisation in these settings, with REE, Ba and F partitioning into the carbonate-rich phase. The most significant REE mineralisation in post-collisional alkaline-carbonatite complexes occurs in shallow-level, carbothermal or carbonatite intrusions, but deeper carbonatite bodies and associated alteration zones may also have REE enrichment.

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“…This section of the characterisation scheme (Table 4, Section G) is designed primarily for the petroleum industry, although petroleum play elements can be easily modified for use as mineral play elements (Section 4.7; e.g. Banks, Walter, et al, 2019; McCuaig, Scarselli, O'Connor, Busuttil, & McCormack, 2018). For petroleum play analysis (e.g.…”

Section: Characterisation Scheme For Basement Highsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Royal Dutch Shell, 2013). A mineral play is a group of geologically related mineral deposits and prospects within a chronostratigraphically bound unit (Banks, Walter, et al, 2019). Several questions about basement highs should be answered to model the evolution of a basin or the prospectivity of a petroleum or mineral play, including the following.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%