A very full glass: Adding complexity to our thinking about the implications and applications of optimism and pessimism research.

Abstract

As much of the research discussed in this volume indicates, there is substantial evidence that optimism, in its many forms, is related to better outcomes (e.g., coping, satisfaction, well-being) measured in a variety of ways across a variety of contexts. This evidence makes it extremely tempting to conclude that optimism is always to be desired over pessimism, and further, that as educators, policy consultants, therapists, and parents we should do everything we can to promote optimism. Indeed, as we leave the century espousing the sentiments of Dale Carnegie and "Don't Worry, Be Happy," it seems churlish, as well as somewhat un-American, to dwell on caveats to that conclusion.Nevertheless, we live in a culture where cautions about overgeneralization, misapplication, or limitations-all the carefully considered details 347

Focusing on the positive, focusing on the negative: Implications for psychotherapy

“…Held (this issue) points out how American culture has been saturated by an "optimistic" bias which can serve to invalidate the experience of people who, for various reasons, may not be able to be optimistic. She further points out that this bias is culture-specific (also see Norem & Chang, 2001). Research cited by Norem and Chang (2002) explicitly demonstrates how a particular kind of pessimism-defensive pessimism-actually helps high-anxious people cope.…”

“…Of particular relevance is a client's cultural context. Pessimism, for instance, is not as dysfunctional in Asian cultures as it is in American culture (Norem & Chang, 2001). However, there may be other ways an apparently dysfunctional behavior is "ecologically wise" (Bohart & Tallman, 1999) as defensive pessimism, false hope, and complaining illustrate.…”

“…As an example of how applying the standardized research on optimism to a client may backfire, consider one of Norem and Chang's (2001) defensive pessimists who comes to therapy. Imagine that client comes in and tells the therapist that she is really afraid she is going to fail her upcoming test.…”

The positive psychology of negative thinking

“…Norem and Chang (2001) list several, including dispositional optimism and pessimism (Scheier & Carver, 1985), optimistic and pessimistic attributional or explanatory styles (Peterson & Seligman, 1987), naive optimism (Epstein & Meier, 1989), optimistic biases or illusions (Taylor & Brown, 1988), neurotic and rational pessimism (Kelman, 1945), unrealistic optimism (Weinstein & Klein, 1996), unrealistic pessimism (Dolinski, Gromski, & Zawisza, 1987), realistic pessimism (Frese, 1992), and defensive pessimism and strategic optimism (Norem & Cantor, 1986).…”

Effects of counterfactual thought on postpurchase consumer affect

“…Outcome, a situational feature inherent in every consumer purchase, is one of these factors. Another is the individual predisposition toward strategic optimism or defensive pessimism (Cantor & Norem, 1989;Norem, 2001;Norem & Cantor, 1986;Norem & Chang, 2001;Sanna, 1996).…”