Abstract:Biodiesel is a long-chain fatty acid ester made from renewed and biological raw materials such as used cooking, animal fat, vegetable oil, and algae. Biodiesel is a renewable and clean fuel as it reduces carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons, and particulate matter emissions compared with petroleum-based diesel fuel. Production of biodiesel from renewable resources is done through the transesterification reaction at which the organic group (alkyl) of alcohol is substituted with the organic group of a t… Show more
“…Biodiesel can be chemically defined as a mixture of ethyl esters with long-chain fatty acids obtained from renewable sources, such as vegetable oils [8], animal fats, sunflower seeds [9]. Such oils and fats may contain about 20% free fatty acids (FFAs), but an ideal amount should not exceed 1% because the saponification of FFAs reduces the fatty acid alkyl ester yield [10]. Therefore, when using raw materials with high FFA content, an esterification reaction is required to produce biodiesel, using supercritical, enzyme, heterogeneous, or homogeneous acid catalysts [11].…”
“…Biodiesel can be chemically defined as a mixture of ethyl esters with long-chain fatty acids obtained from renewable sources, such as vegetable oils [8], animal fats, sunflower seeds [9]. Such oils and fats may contain about 20% free fatty acids (FFAs), but an ideal amount should not exceed 1% because the saponification of FFAs reduces the fatty acid alkyl ester yield [10]. Therefore, when using raw materials with high FFA content, an esterification reaction is required to produce biodiesel, using supercritical, enzyme, heterogeneous, or homogeneous acid catalysts [11].…”
“…which illustrates the main chemical reactions of glycerol transformation. Crude glycerol found from biodiesel synthesis contains alcohol (particularly methanol), catalysts, free fatty acids, mono, di- and triacylglycerols, salts, and water contents which differ with the usage of raw material, catalytic process, and the stages of biodiesel preparation and purification [ 29 ]. Fig.…”
Section: Glycerol Production From the Biodiesel Industrymentioning
Graphic abstract
The rapid industrial and economic development runs on fossil fuel and other energy sources. Limited oil reserves, environmental issues, and high transportation costs lead towards carbon unbiased renewable and sustainable fuel. Compared to other carbon-based fuels, biodiesel is attracted worldwide as a biofuel for the reduction of global dependence on fossil fuels and the greenhouse effect. During biodiesel production, approximately 10% of glycerol is formed in the transesterification process in a biodiesel plant. The ditching of crude glycerol is important as it contains salt, free fatty acids, and methanol that cause contamination of soil and creates environmental challenges for researchers. However, the excessive cost of crude glycerol refining and market capacity encourage the biodiesel industries for developing a new idea for utilising and produced extra sources of income and treat biodiesel waste. This review focuses on the significance of crude glycerol in the value-added utilisation and conversion to bioethanol by a fermentation process and describes the opportunities of glycerol in various applications.
“…is property makes the plant suitable for application in biodiesel production that can be used in transport, industrial, and agricultural sectors, thus positively contributing to the solutions of the challenges facing the energy sector. e oil content of the seeds is approximately 30-46% w/w, and this makes their use as an energy source for fuel production very attractive [4][5][6][7]. In addition to this, Jatropha oil has been found to have other useful applications such as in the manufacture of candles, soap, cosmetics, and also medicinal purposes [8][9][10].…”
The aim of this study was to examine the effects of solvent-to-solid ratio, particle size, extraction time, and temperature on the extraction of Jatropha oil using three organic solvents, i.e., n-hexane, petroleum ether, and ethanol. The Soxhlet extraction method was used, and the parameters were varied in the following ranges: extraction temperature of 24–80°C, extraction time of 2 to 8 h, solvent-to-solid ratio of 4 : 1 to 7 : 1, and particle size of 0.5–0.8 mm. After obtaining optimal conditions, a large volume of Jatropha oil was prepared, purified, and subjected to analysis of quality parameters. It was found that the oil content of the Jatropha curcas L. seeds used was 48.2 ± 0.12% w/w. The highest oil yield of 47.5 ± 0.11% w/w corresponding to an oil recovery of 98.6 ± 0.3% w/w was obtained with n-hexane under the following conditions: solvent-to-solid ratio of 6 : 1, particle size of 0.5–0.8 mm, extraction time of 7 h, and extraction temperature of 68°C. This was followed by that of petroleum ether (46.2 ± 0.15% w/w) and lastly by ethanol (43 ± 0.18% w/w). The quality parameters of the oil extracted compared favorably well with most of the values reported in the literature, suggesting that the oil was of good quality for biodiesel production. Environmental and safety concerns over the use of hexane pose a great challenge. Thus, ethanol, which is environmentally benign, is recommended for application. The conditions for ethanol extraction that gave high oil yield were as follows: extraction temperature of 70°C, extraction time of 7 h, solvent-to-solid ratio of 6 : 1, particle size of 0.5–0.8 mm, and oil yield of 43 ± 0.18% w/w corresponding to an oil recovery of 89.2 ± 0.4% w/w.
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