A Review of the Ephedra genus: Distribution, Ecology, Ethnobotany, Phytochemistry and Pharmacological Properties

Abstract

Ephedra is one of the largest genera of the Ephedraceae family, which is distributed in arid and semiarid regions of the world. In the traditional medicine from several countries some species from the genus are commonly used to treat asthma, cold, flu, chills, fever, headache, nasal congestion, and cough. The chemical constituents of Ephedra species have been of research interest for decades due to their contents of ephedrine-type alkaloids and its pharmacological properties. Other chemical constituents such as phenolic and amino acid derivatives also have resulted attractive and have provided evidence-based supporting of the ethnomedical uses of the Ephedra species. In recent years, research has been expanded to explore the endophytic fungal diversity associated to Ephedra species, as well as, the chemical constituents derived from these fungi and their pharmacological bioprospecting. Two additional aspects that illustrate the chemical diversity of Ephedra genus are the chemotaxonomy approaches and the use of ephedrine-type alkaloids as building blocks in organic synthesis. American Ephedra species, especially those that exist in Mexico, are considered to lack ephedrine type alkaloids. In this sense, the phytochemical study of Mexican Ephedra species is a promising area of research to corroborate their ephedrine-type alkaloids content and, in turn, discover new chemical compounds with potential biological activity. Therefore, the present review represents a key compilation of all the relevant information for the Ephedra genus, in particular the American species, the species distribution, their ecological interactions, its ethnobotany, its phytochemistry and their pharmacological activities and toxicities, in order to promote clear directions for future research.

Phytochemical Profile, Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of <em>Ephedra alata</em> Decne Growing in South Algeria

“…Ephedra is one of the largest genera of the Ephedraceae family, it consists of 69 species mainly distributed in semi-arid environments, although some species are distributed through few Neotropical countries 6,7 . Ephedras are traditionally used to treat allergies, bronchial asthma, chills, colds, coughs, edema, fever, flu, headaches and nasal congestion 8 , they have been used in the US since the 20 th for weight loss and to treat syphilis and gonorrhea and in China for more than 5000 years and Ayurvedic medicine as a stimulant and an anti-asthmatic while Pharmacological trials on crude extracts, fractions and few isolated compounds of Ephedra species in vitro and in vivo demonstrated anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antibacterial, antioxidant, hepatoprotective, anti-obesity, antiviral, and diuretic activity 9 .…”

Therapeutic effects of traditional Chinese medicine (Maxingshigan-Weijing Decoction) on COVID-19: An open-label randomized controlled trial

“…MWD used in this study is composed of the 14 herbal drugs mentioned above. Herba Ephedra (Mahuang), an important component of MWD, has been used to treat asthma, cold, flu, chills, fever, headache, nasal congestion, and cough in many countries [18] . Amygdalus Communis Vas (Xingren) and semen lepidii (Tinglizi) decrease lung qi to relieve asthma, and Gypsum Fibrosum (Shigao) exerts an antipyretic effect by reducing the synthesis of inflammatory factors [19] .…”

Diversity in Chemical Structures and Biological Properties of Plant Alkaloids

“…These are tetracyclic alkaloids derived from benzylisoquinolines by the process of phenolic oxidation and coupling with the isoquinoline N-methyl group, resulting in the formation of “berberine bridge” carbon. Plant species from the genus Ephedra produce phenylalanine-derived alkaloids ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, phenylpropanolamine, and cathine [ 46 ]. Of these ephedra alkaloids, ephedrine is the most potent thermogenic agent.…”