A Review of Roof Harvested Rainwater in Australia

Abstract

To address concern regarding water sustainability, the Australian Federal Government and many state governments have implemented regulatory mechanisms and incentives to support households to purchase and install rainwater harvesting systems. This has led to an increase in rainwater harvesting in regional and urban Australia. This review examines the implementation of the regulatory mechanisms across Australia. In addition, the literature investigating the potential health consequences of rainwater consumption in Australia was explored. Studies demonstrated that although trace metals such as arsenic, cadmium, chromium, lead, and iron were present in Australian rainwater, these metallic elements were generally found below the health limit guideline, except in high industrial areas. In addition, pathogenic or indicator microorganisms that include, but are not limited to, Escherichia coli, total and faecal coliforms, Campylobacter, Salmonella, Legionella, Pseudomonas, Cryptosporidium, Enterococci, Giardia, Aeromonas, and Mycobacterium avium Complex (MAC) have been detected in rainwater collected in Australia. However, epidemiological evidence suggests that drinking rainwater does not increase the risk of gastrointestinal disease. It was also identified that there is a need for further research investigating the potential for rainwater to be a source of infection for opportunistic pathogens.

The risk of cross-border pollution and the influence of regional climate on the rainwater chemistry in the Southern Carpathians, Romania

“…This value is 0.015 mg/L, 0.005 mg/L, and 0.01 mg/L for Pb, Cd, and As, respectively. Ni does not have a MCL values, but according to Chubaka et al (2018), the health limit for Ni is 0.02 mg/L. Results have shown that Cd had the highest values at all sampling sites (Table 4), at MN and BH, the TP being 7 and 14 times higher than the reference value, respectively.…”

“…Trace metals occur in many environmental matrices, and can be naturally found in the Earth's crust (Chubaka et al 2018). According to the World Health Organization (WHO) Pb, Cd, As, and Ni are classified as highly toxic to humans.…”

“…According to the World Health Organization (WHO) Pb, Cd, As, and Ni are classified as highly toxic to humans. Table 3 Ionic ratios among measured ions Concentrations of these metals can also be found in rainwater, and are emitted to the atmosphere from metal smelters and waste processing plants, but mining and industrial activities also play a significant role in increasing the concentrations of these metals in the environment (Morais et al 2012;Malassa et al 2014;Chubaka et al 2018). High concentrations of heavy metals deposited into common sources of drinking water, such as lakes and streams.…”

Comprehensive Assessment Methodology for Urban Residential Rainwater Tank Implementation

“…Most of the Australian states (South Australia, Victoria, New South Wales, Queensland, Northern Territory and Australia Capital Territory), with the exception of Western Australia and Tasmania, have regulations/specifications for rainwater tank installation [12]. NSW Government introduced BASIX during 2004 [9].…”

“…The Building Sustainability Index (BASIX) [9] in New South Wales (NSW), minimum regulatory requirements for achieving a 6-star water and energy standard in Victoria [10], and Queensland Development Code MP4.2 [11] in Queensland are some of the examples for enforcing rainwater tank installations through regulatory means. Chubaka et al [12] have discussed in detail the regulations and specifications for rainwater tank installation in Australian states. However, to fully understand the effectiveness of such legislation, a comprehensive assessment protocol covering biophysical, economic, environmental and social aspects is required.…”