A Review of Ochratoxin A Occurrence, Condition for the Formation and Determination Methods

Atumo, Salasib

doi:10.11648/j.jddmc.20200602.11

Cited by 3 publications

(5 citation statements)

References 24 publications

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“…For example, the two most prevalent species of Aspergillus observed in this study – A. ochraceus and A. niger —are both known to produce Ochratoxin A (OTA), in addition to Penicillium spp. OTA is a nephrotoxic and carcinogenic agent commonly found in a range of fungal-contaminated agricultural products ( Moss, 2008 ; Pitt and Hocking 2009b ; Malir et al, 2016 ; Atumo, 2020 ). A number of jurisdictions, including the state of California, require mandatory testing for four Aspergillus spp.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Total yeast and mold levels in high THC-containing cannabis (Cannabis sativa L.) inflorescences are influenced by genotype, environment, and pre-and post-harvest handling practices

Punja,

Ni,

Lung

et al. 2023

Front. Microbiol.

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Total yeast and mold (TYM) levels in inflorescences of high THC-containing Cannabis sativa (cannabis) are regulated to ensure that medicinal and recreational users, especially those with immunocompromised systems, are not exposed to potentially harmful levels. In North America, the limits imposed range from 1,000–10,000 cfu/g of dried product to 50,000–100,000 cfu/g, depending on the jurisdiction. Factors affecting a build-up of TYM in cannabis inflorescences have not been previously researched. In this study, >2,000 fresh and dried samples were assayed for TYM over a 3-year period (2019–2022) to identify specific factors which can contribute to TYM levels. Greenhouse-grown inflorescences were sampled before and after commercial harvest, homogenized for 30 s, and plated onto potato dextrose agar (PDA) with 140 mg/L streptomycin sulfate. Colony-forming-units (cfu) were rated after 5 days of incubation at 23°C under 10–14 h light. PDA provided more consistent counts of cfu compared to Sabouraud dextrose and tryptic soy agars. The predominant fungal genera identified by PCR of the ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 region of rDNA were Penicillium, Aspergillus, Cladosporium, and Fusarium. In addition, four yeast genera were recovered. In total, 21 species of fungi and yeasts constituted the total cfu present in the inflorescences. The variables that significantly (p < 0.05) increased these TYM levels in inflorescences were: the genotype (strain) grown, presence of leaf litter in the greenhouse, harvesting activity by workers, genotypes with a higher abundance of stigmatic tissues and inflorescence leaves, higher temperature and relative humidity within the inflorescence microclimate, time of year (May–October), method of drying buds after harvest, and inadequate drying of buds. The variables which significantly (p < 0.05) decreased TYM in samples were: genotypes with lower numbers of inflorescence leaves, air circulation achieved by fans during inflorescence maturation, harvesting during November–April, hang-drying of entire inflorescence stems, and drying to a moisture content of 12–14% (water activity of 0.65–0.7) or lower which was inversely correlated with cfu levels. Under these conditions, the majority of dried commercial cannabis samples contained <1,000–5,000 cfu/g. Our findings indicate that TYM in cannabis inflorescences are the result of a dynamic interaction between genotype, environment, and post-harvest handling methods. Some of these factors may be altered by cannabis producers to reduce the potential build-up of these microbes. Among the 21 fungal and yeast species recovered from greenhouse-grown cannabis inflorescences, a few could pose a potential threat to human health, while many do not and they could provide beneficial interactions within the cannabis plant. The currently recommended plating methods onto agar media and enumeration of total cfu are unable to distinguish between these two groups.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Total yeast and mold levels in high THC-containing cannabis (Cannabis sativa L.) inflorescences are influenced by genotype, environment, and pre-and post-harvest handling practices

Punja,

Ni,

Lung

et al. 2023

Front. Microbiol.

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“…69 OTA A, a metabolite of Aspergillus ochraceus, was classified as a probable human carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer in 1993. 70 OTA A is one of the most harmful mycotoxins in cheese owing to its hepatotoxicity, neurotoxicity, and immunotoxicity. Additionally, the synergistic interaction between the two toxins can significantly increase the degree of harm to human health upon contact, as the polyketide component of both fungal toxins is structurally strongly linked.…”

Section: Cit Contamination During Production Andmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…CIT, one of the most widely reported toxins produced by Penicillium citrinum or Penicillium verrucosum , appears to be very stable in cheese, with 50% residue even after 1 week of storage at 20 °C. , Notably, P. verrucosum can produce CIT and/or ochratoxin (OTA) depending on its growth and environmental conditions . OTA A, a metabolite of Aspergillus ochraceus , was classified as a probable human carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer in 1993 . OTA A is one of the most harmful mycotoxins in cheese owing to its hepatotoxicity, neurotoxicity, and immunotoxicity.…”

Section: Possible Contamination Of Cit In Monascus Cheesementioning

confidence: 99%

Occurrence, Risk Implications, Prevention and Control of CIT in Monascus Cheese: A Review

Zhang,

Cheng,

Qin

et al. 2024

J. Agric. Food Chem.

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Monascus is a filamentous fungus that has been used in the food and pharmaceutical industries. When used as an auxiliary fermenting agent in the manufacturing of cheese, Monascus cheese is obtained. Citrinin (CIT) is a well-known hepatorenal toxin produced by Monascus that can harm the kidneys structurally and functionally and is frequently found in foods. However, CIT contamination in Monascus cheese is exacerbated by the metabolic ability of Monascus to product CIT, which is not lost during fermentation, and by the threat of contamination by Penicillium spp. that may be introduced during production and processing. Considering the safety of consumption and subsequent industrial development, the CIT contamination of Monascus cheese products needs to be addressed. This review aimed to examine its occurrence in Monascus cheese, risk implications, traditional control strategies, and new research advances in prevention and control to guide the application of biotechnology in the control of CIT contamination, providing more possibilities for the application of Monascus in the cheese industry.

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“…(FAO 2004 references). OTA is a mycotoxin that is made by a number of fungi, especially Genus Aspergillus which includes; Aspergillus ochraceus, Aspergillus carbonarius, Aspergillus niger, and other fungus includes Penicillium verrucosum [2]. Ochratoxin can be divided into three groups based on its chemical and structural characteristics, Ochratoxin A being the most dangerous and frequently seen metabolite [3].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Ochratoxin can be divided into three groups based on its chemical and structural characteristics, Ochratoxin A being the most dangerous and frequently seen metabolite [3]. Numerous studies have demonstrated that OTA ingestion can result in a number of health issues for both human and animal health for example, OTA has been demonstrated to be nephrotoxic, teratogenic, immunotoxic, and carcinogenic to human health when present in foods of plant and animal origin [2]. Exposure of ochratoxins to humans over an extended length of time by any route like contaminated diet, water etc… can cause a number of health issues, including kidney and liver cancer as well as a weakened immune [4].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Evaluation of the Expression of RCC and KIM-1 Biomarkers in Nephrotoxicity of Rabbits Treated with Ochratoxins A

2023

JPTCP

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Mycotoxin known as ochratoxin A (OTA) is generated by a number of fungi, including Aspergillus ochraceus, Aspergillus carbonarius, Aspergillus niger, and Penicillium verrucosum. OTA causes kidney tumors and nephrotoxicity in humans and a number of other animal species. This study was conducted to determine the effect of OTA in the kidney of New Zealand White rabbits and the role of RCC and KIM-1 biomarkers in kidney toxicity induced by OTA. Histopathological study showed various pathological effects of rabbit's kidneys treated with 0.5 mg/kg (body weight intraperitoneally) with OTA in comparison with control animals. RCC and KIM-1 were used as biomarkers for the immunohistochemical study, results showed that there were no expressions in control animals (score =0), while the expressions of RCC and KIM-1 in animals kidney treated with 0.5 mg/kg (body weight intraperitoneally) of OTA were strong (score =3) and moderate (score =2) respectively.

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A Review of Ochratoxin A Occurrence, Condition for the Formation and Determination Methods

Cited by 3 publications

References 24 publications

Total yeast and mold levels in high THC-containing cannabis (Cannabis sativa L.) inflorescences are influenced by genotype, environment, and pre-and post-harvest handling practices

Total yeast and mold levels in high THC-containing cannabis (Cannabis sativa L.) inflorescences are influenced by genotype, environment, and pre-and post-harvest handling practices

Occurrence, Risk Implications, Prevention and Control of CIT in Monascus Cheese: A Review

Evaluation of the Expression of RCC and KIM-1 Biomarkers in Nephrotoxicity of Rabbits Treated with Ochratoxins A

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