A review of factors surrounding the air pollution exposure to in-pram babies and mitigation strategies

Abstract

Air pollution exposure to in-pram babies poses a serious threat to their early childhood development, necessitating a need for effective mitigation measures. We reviewed the scientific and grey literature on in-pram babies and their personal exposure to traffic generated air pollutants such as particulate matter ≤10 μm (PM), ≤2.5 μm (PM), ≤0.10 μm (ultrafine particles) in size, black carbon and nitrogen oxides and potential mitigation pathways. In-pram babies can be exposed up to ~60% higher average concentrations depending on the pollutant types compared with adults. The air within the first few meters above the road level is usually most polluted. Therefore, we classified various pram types based on criteria such as height, width and the seating capacity (single versus twin) and assessed the breathing heights of sitting babies in various pram types available in the market. This classification revealed the pram widths between 0.56 and 0.82 m and top handle heights up to ~1.25 m as opposed to breathing height between 0.55 and 0.85 m, suggesting that the concentration within the first meter above the road level is critical for exposure to in-pram babies. The assessment of flow features around the prams suggests that meteorological conditions (e.g., wind speed and direction) and traffic-produced turbulence affect the pollution dispersion around them. A survey of the physicochemical properties of particles from roadside environment demonstrated the dominance of toxic metals that have been shown to damage their frontal lobe as well as cognition and brain development when inhaled by in-pram babies. We then assessed a wide range of active and passive exposure mitigation strategies, including a passive control at the receptor such as the enhanced filtration around the breathing zone and protection of prams via covers. Technological solutions such as creating a clean air zone around the breathing area can provide instant solutions. However, a holistic approach involving a mix of innovative technological solutions, community empowerment and exposure-centric policies are needed to help limit personal exposure of in-pram babies.

Comparison of diffusion tube–measured nitrogen dioxide concentrations at child and adult breathing heights: who are we monitoring for?

“…However, our study has provided evidence to support previous literature observations (Kenagy et al 2016) that the standard practice of locating diffusion tubes at heights either at or above adult breathing height in the UK may lead to an underestimation of the concentration of NO 2 experienced by children, either walking or in prams and buggies. These concerns have been highlighted in the literature for nitrogen dioxide, particulate matter and other pollutants (Sharma and Kumar 2018). In the present study, at site 1, we found that NO 2 concentrations over an 8-month period were 5.9% lower at the NCC standard diffusion tube height (2.7 m) compared with at children's breathing height (0.7 m).…”

“…The official guidance acknowledges that tubes placed at heights above the breathing zone may 'underestimate the actual concentrations to which the public are exposed' (AEA Energy and Environment 2008). The average breathing height of children ranges from 0.7 to 1.5 m (Rivas et al 2016), whereas children in prams and strollers have breathing heights of approximately 0.55 m and 0.85 m respectively (Sharma and Kumar 2018). Therefore, children will experience NO 2 concentrations at heights that are as much as 2 m below what is being monitored and reported by NCC.…”

A citizen science approach for enhancing public understanding of air pollution

“…This clearly supported the sudden change in the PM2.5 levels. After further inspection of the data during this event, the participant found that it took almost 12 hours for the concentration level to go back to normal since the burning incident, clearly highlighting that PM2.5 concentrations can disproportionally increase during such incidents to expose families, including most vulnerable such as young children (Sharma and Kumar 2018) and elderly people (Segalin et al, 2017), to harmful level of pollution. The citizen scientist highlighted the need for sufficient ventilation in kitchens, especially the importance of opening the windows, during food burning events, where PM2.5 concentrations can take hours to return to normal levels without sufficient ventilation.…”

Field investigations for evaluating green infrastructure effects on air quality in open-road conditions

“…The majority of people living in nearroad environments are low-income residents or minorities (Carrier et al, 2014a;Tian et al, 2013). In addition, exposure to traffic-related air pollutants of vulnerable schoolchildren escalates concerns over air quality in the near-road region (Carrier et al, 2014b;Kim et al, 2004;Kumar et al, 2017;Sharma and Kumar, 2018). Numerous studies have demonstrated the association of adverse health impacts with people living in near-road conditions proximate to highways.…”