A review of diversity in the evolution and development of cartilage: the search for the origin of the chondrocyte

Abstract

Mammalian cartilage is a complex and developmentally important tissue type. Outside the mammalian lineage, cartilage may persist as an adult tissue, which shows a much wider diversity of histological structure. Tissues similar to vertebrate cartilage are also found within multiple invertebrate lineages, including mollusks, arthropods, and polychaetes, however the relationship of these tissues to vertebrate cartilage is unknown. Detailed molecular analysis of these invertebrate tissues is necessary to assess the degree of homology, if any, of cartilage throughout the metazoans. The purpose of the following review is to introduce readers to this diversity of cartilage and to synthesize the known genetic interactions that give rise to vertebrate cartilage into the format of a gene regulatory network (GRN). This chondrogenesis GRN highlights a large number of transcription factors known to be expressed during chondrogenesis, whose role in this process has yet to be elucidated. Verification and expansion of this initial GRN will assist in the identification of the core set of the genetic interactions necessary for the specification of the vertebrate chondrocyte. This is the necessary first step in allowing detailed comparison of the molecular signature of vertebrate chondrocytes with that of invertebrates with the ultimate goal of understanding the evolutionary origin of this important skeletal cell type.

Effect of miR-204&211 and RUNX2 control on the fate of human mesenchymal stromal cells

“…In the developing human skeletal system, head and neck excluded, chondro-and osteo-genesis are strictly inter-wined processes. Bone formation starts from cartilage cores in a path known as endochondral ossification [8,18,5,12].…”

“…In contrast, C3 MSCs over-expressing miR-204 or miR-211, effectively down-modulated RUNX-2 ( Fig. 2B), whereas expression levels of CRTAP gene product, a key gene for chondrogenesis [5], and a potential target for miR-204&211, according to Target Scan6.2 (www.targetscan.org), were not altered. GAPDH, the control protein, remained steady (Fig.…”

“…Being bone formation inter-wined with chondrogenesis, we seek to explore their effect of on cartilage formation. In bone development, in fact, chondro-and osteo-genesis are coordinated developmental processes, since bones form from cartilage cores by endochondral ossification [8,18,5] head and neck bones excluded for carrying out membranous ossification. An overlooked but pivotal lineage, functionally defined as hematopoietic supporting activity, is also dependent on MSCs, as constituents of the so called "hematopoietic niche", i.e.…”

“…Regarding chondrogenesis, we explored CRTAP [5] a reported virtual target according to Target Scan6.2 (www. targetscan.org) but it was not decreased by miR-204&211.…”

Terapias Celulares y Productos de Ingeniería de Tejidos para el Tratamiento de Lesiones Condrales de Rodilla

“…Esta es rica en colágenos tipo II, IV, IX y XI, fibromodulina, matrilina 3 (Cole, 2011Goldring, 2012) y proteoglicanos, de los cuales el agrecano es el más abundante. La organización microestructural de estos componentes confiere al cartílago sus propiedades anatómicas y funcionales, siendo el colágeno tipo II y el agrecano las moléculas más abundantes e importantes del cartílago hialino articular (Maroudas et al, 1998).…”