A Rediscovered Tradition: European Pedagogy and Composition in Nineteenth-Century Midwestern Normal Schools

Language as social action: Gertrude Buck, the “Michigan School” of rhetoric, and pragmatist philosophy

“…In these environments, Buck aimed to democratize writing by focusing on cooperative and inductive learning, engaging students in writing and thinking about their own practical interests, rather than on abstract or formal rhetorical and grammatical principles (Bordelon, 2007, chap. 2; Fitzgerald, 2001). This concern with democratizing instruction was part of the broader movement toward “progressive education,” aiming to develop individuals prepared to engage in public deliberation of the problems of modern society, and Buck's pioneering emphasis on personal‐experiential writing has been called a “distinctively feminist rhetoric” unique for its time (Brereton, 1996, p. 20).…”

How can the secondary school learning model be adapted to provide for more meaningful curriculum integration?

“…Fraser is a strong advocate for a studentcentred approach in that she believes authentic integration begins with, as Beane (1997) refers to, a personal or social issue of concern and is fully negotiated with the student/s and the teacher. Fitzgerald (2001) also makes links to the student-centred curriculum and Herbart's theories by referring to the idea of a child's learning beginning with their own experiences of the world. She reiterates that the way children learn best is by being able to compare new and old concepts and ideas and work towards making connections between these by considering their similarities and differences.…”

“…Her ideas are fundamental to the core essence of CI. Fraser (2000), Beane (1997), and Fitzgerald (2001) are all strong advocates for a student-centred approach and believe that CI should actively involve students by using problems and issues of importance to them rather than keeping to the confines of stand-alone subjects.…”

Productive discomfort

“…Periods of moving away from tradition are followed by a retreat to tradition, followed by a period of progress and so on. Some trends, like progressive education, disappear for years, only to pop back up again, slightly altered but recognizable (Kinneavy, 1971;Fitzgerald, 2001). These shifts are always a result of changes in the broader sociopolitical climate (Ohmann, 1996) and are a testament to higher education's role as both an agent of change and as an institution that yields to greater sociopolitical forces.…”

“…Writing instruction, in particular, has strong connections to Dewey and his peers. The process-writing movement, which developed in earnest during the 1960's and 1970's, consistently refers to progressive education scholarship, particularly Dewey's works The School and Society (1932), Democracy and Education (1916), and Experience and Education (1938) (Fitzgerald, 2001).…”