A Quantitative Study of the Dietary of the Human Mother with Respect to the Nutrients Secreted into Breast Milk

Shukers, Carroll F.; Macy, Icie G.; Nims, Betty; Donelson, Eva; Hunscher, Helen A.

doi:10.1093/jn/5.2.127

Cited by 17 publications

(7 citation statements)

References 6 publications

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“…A tentative conclusion that energy in human milk is produced with an efficiency of about 90 % agrees reasonably well with the evidence we reviewed a decade ago (Hytten & Thomson, 1961). It also agrees with the much earlier comment-and results-of Shukers, Macy, Nims, Donelson & Hunscher (1932) that three wet-nurses 'exhibited a high degree of efficiency in the transformation of food energy into milk'.…”

Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 92%

The energy cost of human lactation

1970

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I .The energy values of the diets of twenty-three women who were breast-feeding and thirty-two who were bottle-feeding their babies were determined by 7 d weighed surveys. All the subjects were healthy and living at home, and their babies were thriving. The lactating mothers took, on average, 591 kcal (2.5 MJ)/d more than those who were not lactating.2. Both groups were losing weight, on average. The estimated contribution of such losses to the total energy supply was added to and the amounts expended on basal metabolism deducted from the dietary energy intakes. Since the activity of each group was fairly similar, it was possible to conclude that the average amount of energy available to support lactation was 618 kcal (2.6 MJ) daily. The average energy value of the milk produced was estimated from the weights of the babies to be 597 kcal (2.5 MJ) daily.3. Critical evaluation of those averages, and of the assumptions on which they were based, led to the conclusion that the energy exchanges in human lactation have an efficiency of 90 yo or more, with a lower limit of about 80 %. 4.The additional supply of 600 kcal (2.5 MJ) in the daily diet should suffice to support lactation and a 'round figure' of 500 kcal (2.1 MJ) daily may be regarded as reasonable in official recommended allowances.Many national and international authorities have estimated that a lactating woman requires 1000 kcal daily in addition to ordinary requirements. That figure appears to have been first proposed by the FA0 (1950) Committee on Calorie Requirements. A second FA0 (1957) report, while confirming the estimate, noted that 'some women find that an increase of 1000 Calories daily is not easily achieved and an increase of 800 Calories may be a more reasonable estimate'.The daily allowance of 1000 kcal was based on an assumed production of 850 ml milk with an energy value of 600 kcal. The efficiency with which dietary energy is converted into energy in milk was therefore taken to be 60%, an estimate which was briefly explained in an appendix to the I950 report. It was derived from sixty-nine published records of the milk yields of nineteen women, all of whom were said to be taking diets of about 3000 kcal daily. An arbitrary base-line of energy expenditure, representing a constant level of maintenance and activity, was deducted from the intake, and the excess over this base-line was related to the energy value of the milk produced. No details of the calculations were given.In 1960, we reviewed the published evidence available to the FA0 Committee, together with some scanty additional material, and concluded that a production efficiency of about 80% fitted the data better than 60% (Hytten & Thomson, 1961). It was noted, however, that most of the evidence came from exceptional subjects, such as high-yielding wet-nurses, or had been collected under special experimental conditions. 'What seems to be needed now is a study of "typical" lactating women living under ordinary dietetic and social conditions.'https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https:/...

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Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 92%

The energy cost of human lactation

1970

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“…In a large study of 200 women who expressed milk manually for 24 h, the volume ranged from 0.8 to 1.8 liters for a mean daily loss of 400 mg calcium (582,584). Individual women were identified who had sustained production of up to 3 liters of milk per day during 6 -12 mo of lactation (419,583,838); analysis of their milk revealed daily calcium losses of 500-1,200 mg (419, 838). However, manual expression of milk can yield much greater volumes than a suckling baby demands, thereby overestimating milk production.…”

Section: Skeletal and Mineral Physiology During Lactation And Posmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…However, this should be mitigated by the infant consuming solid foods by 6 mo of age and a reduction in the amount of milk produced. On the other hand, a professional "wet nurse" can have high volumes of milk output that are sustained for long intervals (419,583,838), so ongoing bone loss seems inevitable. However, no bone density data have been reported for such women.…”

Section: Human Datamentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Women who nurse twins and triplets can have, respectively, more than double and triple the milk output of women nursing singletons (233,792). Individual cases of women nursing singletons have documented milk output of up to 2.4 -3.1 liters per day that was sustained for more than 12 mo of lactation (583,838). The composition of milk is similar between women with average and high outputs (233,792), and so producing more milk will cause greater maternal losses of calcium.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Maternal Mineral and Bone Metabolism During Pregnancy, Lactation, and Post-Weaning Recovery

Kovacs

2016

Physiological Reviews

361

524

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During pregnancy and lactation, female physiology adapts to meet the added nutritional demands of fetuses and neonates. An average full-term fetus contains ϳ30 g calcium, 20 g phosphorus, and 0.8 g magnesium. About 80% of mineral is accreted during the third trimester; calcium transfers at 300-350 mg/day during the final 6 wk. The neonate requires 200 mg calcium daily from milk during the first 6 mo, and 120 mg calcium from milk during the second 6 mo (additional calcium comes from solid foods). Calcium transfers can be more than double and triple these values, respectively, in women who nurse twins and triplets. About 25% of dietary calcium is normally absorbed in healthy adults. Average maternal calcium intakes in American and Canadian women are insufficient to meet the fetal and neonatal calcium requirements if normal efficiency of intestinal calcium absorption is relied upon. However, several adaptations are invoked to meet the fetal and neonatal demands for mineral without requiring increased intakes by the mother. During pregnancy the efficiency of intestinal calcium absorption doubles, whereas during lactation the maternal skeleton is resorbed to provide calcium for milk. This review addresses our current knowledge regarding maternal adaptations in mineral and skeletal homeostasis that occur during pregnancy, lactation, and post-weaning recovery. Also considered are the impacts that these adaptations have on biochemical and hormonal parameters of mineral homeostasis, the consequences for long-term skeletal health, and the presentation and management of disorders of mineral and bone metabolism.

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“…In many reports the number of subjects studied are few and dietary surveys have not always been accompanied by observations on the adequacy of intake or on lactational performance of the mother (WHO, 1965). Most reports on lactating mothers are concerned with specific nutrients and their effects on the composition and volume of milk (Shukers et at., 1932;Gopalan, 1958;Bassir, 1959;Belavady and Gopalan, 1959;Deb and Cama, 1962;Hanafy et al, 1972;Edozien, Rahimkhan and Waslien, 1976). There are a few reports on the nutritional adequacy of the diet of lactating mothers (Pasricha, 1958;Karmakaretal., 1959;Hitchcock and English, 1966;Sims, 1978;Geissler, Calloway and Margen, 1978), but in Africa, only one report from Egypt (Hanafy et al, 1972) is available.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Nutritional status and dietary intake of lactating Yoruba mothers in Nigeria

Abakada

Hussain

1980

Ecology of Food and Nutrition

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The nutrient intakes of 75 rural and 25 urban lactating mothers of poor socio-economic status from the Ibadan area of Nigeria who gave birth to singleton babies and fully breast feeding their infants are reported. The nutritional status of the mothers and their lactation performance were assessed from weight for height and mid-arm circumference of the mother and weight of their infants respectively. Compared to recommended allowance, the mean daily intake of iron, thiamin and calcium was found to be adequate and the intake of vitamin A was very high. Mean intakes of energy, protein, riboflavin and ascorbic acid were inadequate (17, 12, 45 and 66 percent respectively). The results generally agree with those reported from other developing countries. The mothers were healthy and the weights of their infants were satisfactory, and it appeared that most of the mothers were able to maintain a good lactation performance.

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A Quantitative Study of the Dietary of the Human Mother with Respect to the Nutrients Secreted into Breast Milk

Cited by 17 publications

References 6 publications

The energy cost of human lactation

The energy cost of human lactation

Maternal Mineral and Bone Metabolism During Pregnancy, Lactation, and Post-Weaning Recovery

Nutritional status and dietary intake of lactating Yoruba mothers in Nigeria

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