A Qualitative Exploration of the Relationship Between Racism and Unsafe Sex Among Asian Pacific Islander Gay Men

Abstract

Although reported cases of HIV/AIDS among gay Asian Pacific Islander (API) American men and API men who have sex with men (MSM) are still relatively low, current research findings indicate that incidences of unsafe sexual activity may be higher for this group than for any other group. Among the explanations offered to explain the levels of increasing unsafe sex among gay API men have been sexual norms found in Asian cultures, the lack of culturally relevant and/or linguistically appropriate intervention material, lack of integration into the mainstream gay community, and internalized homophobia. What are often ignored in these analyses are the contextual norms in which sexual behavior for gay API men occur. In this article, I develop the argument that racism within the gay community leads to socially and contextually prescribed sexual roles for gay API men that may also contribute to the practice of unsafe sex among this group.

Correlates of Sexual, Ethnic, and Dual Identity: A Study of Young Asian and Pacific Islander Men who Have Sex with Men

“…In a qualitative study examining both sexual and ethnic identities, Han (2008) found that racism was an important concern and created distress for API MSM; being API was considered undesirable in the gay community, typically among White men who tended to not date API men. Recapitulating this sexual rejection by the gay community, researchers have also documented a strong preference by gay API men for gay White men rather than other API (Choi et al, 1998;Han, 2008;Sanitioso, 1999). Han (2008) specifically argued that racism within the gay community reduces the confidence of gay Asian men when they date other gay men, either Asian or white.…”

“…They realize that their same-sex sexual desire is not socially accepted and is considered abnormal (Herek, 1984). Such negative attitudes are incorporated into the individual's self-concept, creating sexual identity distress that affects psychological well-being of men who have sex with men and disrupts their social functioning (Allen & Oleson, 1999;Gock, 2001;Han, 2008;Meyer, 1995).…”

“…Sexual risk behaviors persist at high levels among APIs and new cases of HIV are rising in this group (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2010). API MSM living in the United States have been reported to face significant challenges of low self-esteem and low self-efficacy owing to their dual minority status (Chng, Wong, Park, Edberg, & Lai, 2003;Han, 2008;Mao, Van de Ven, & McCormick, 2004;Nemoto et al, 2003). Choi, Yep, and Kumekawa (1998) have documented that API MSM usually suffer a high level of psychological distress because within API communities and families, homosexuality is highly stigmatized and typically not accepted, and because collectivistic API cultures place great importance on marriage and having children.…”

“…Choi, Yep, and Kumekawa (1998) have documented that API MSM usually suffer a high level of psychological distress because within API communities and families, homosexuality is highly stigmatized and typically not accepted, and because collectivistic API cultures place great importance on marriage and having children. In addition, the conceptualization of masculinity in the United States has led some API MSM to perceive themselves as feminine and unattractive within both the mainstream American and gay communities (Han, 2008;Nemoto et al, 2003). As a consequence, the dominant negative attitudes about being gay and API create an environment that subjects API MSM to stress, depression and a low sense of self-worth.…”

“…As a consequence, the dominant negative attitudes about being gay and API create an environment that subjects API MSM to stress, depression and a low sense of self-worth. These in turn reduce HIV prevention self-efficacy and increase vulnerability to HIV infection (Chae & Yoshikawa, 2008;Choi, Operario, Gregorich, & Han, 2003;Han, 2008;Nemoto et al, 2003;Sanitioso, 1999). Indeed, studies have found relationships between negative attitudes about gay identity and HIV risk be-haviors such as unprotected sex (Kashubeck-West & Szymanski, 2008;Newcomb & Mustanski, 2009), lack of disclosure of HIV status to sex partners (Ross, Rosser, & Neumaier, 2008), and less responsiveness to HIV prevention activities including HIV testing (Do et al, 2005;Huebner, Davis, Nemeroff, & Aiken, 2002).…”