A Psychosocial Genealogy of LGBTQ+ Gender: An Empirically Based Theory of Gender and Gender Identity Cultures

Abstract

In this invited article, I present an inclusive theory of gender that clarifies its interconnections with gender identity, gender expression, and sexuality. To support this functionalist theory, I summarize findings from an extensive body of mixed methods research on lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and other (LGBTQ+) genders in the United States. I use a feminist-intersectional lens to empirically base and historically situate a theory of gender that is grounded in research of LGBTQ+ communities (butch, femme, bear, leathermen, transgender, drag queens, and family/house systems). I define genders as either sets of personal qualities within a culture associated with physiological sex or sets of qualities that evolve in reaction to limitations of existing genders. The evolution of genders functions to meet needs in four domains: (1) psychological: an experience of fit between a core aspect of self and a gender construct; (2) cultural: the creation of an LGBTQ+ culture that asserts sets of gender characteristics, which were denied and stigmatized within preexisting cultural norms; (3) interpersonal: the communicating of affiliation and status to enhance safety; and (4) sexual: an erotic embodiment of signifiers of these needs via an aesthetic that structures sexual attraction. I detail how each function affects identity, security, belonging, and personal and social values. Online slides for instructors who want to use this article for teaching are available on PWQ's website at http://journals.sagepub.com/page/pwq/suppl/index

Gender Matters: The Perceived Role of Gender Expression in Discrimination Against Cisgender and Transgender LGBQ Individuals

“…Within psychology, the perception and consequences of gender norm violations have most commonly been researched in relation to gender roles (Reidy et al, 2009) and personality attributes (Bem, 1974; Spence et al, 1974), with less attention devoted to how embodied conformity to or transgression of societal gender norms shapes experiences (see Dozier, 2017; Levitt, 2019, as exceptions). Gender expression refers to the manifestation of an individual’s sense of being masculine and/or feminine through the use of names, clothing, hair style, accouterments, and body movements associated with gender groups (Kessler & McKenna, 1985; Wilchins, 2004) or, simply stated, the way in which one “does” gender (West & Zimmerman, 1987).…”

“…For many—in particular individuals whose presentations align with societal expectations—this communication and its reception are often unremarkable in day-to-day interactions. For those who defy gender expectations, gender expression may constitute a more self-aware and conscientious embodiment and require constant negotiation of others’ evaluations (Dozier, 2017; Levitt, 2019).…”

“…While violation of gender norms has been discussed as a fundamental component of and underlying foundation for discrimination against lesbian, gay, bisexual, and queer individuals (LGBQ; Herek, 2004, 2009; Wilchins, 2004), little research has examined how gender expression (i.e., how one embodies masculinity and femininity) shapes subjective interpretations of anti-LGBQ discriminatory experiences. Because gender expression is the foundation for the perception of both sexual orientation and gender identity (Bornstein, 1994; Kite & Deaux, 1987), and gender is psychologically, culturally, socially, and sexually central within LGBTQ lives more generally (Levitt, 2019), the conceptualization of anti-queer discrimination as independent from gender expression carries little meaning in the study of LGBQ experience (Savin-Williams & Diamond, 2000). In this article, I use queer theory to examine the role of gender expression in the meaning-making of discriminatory encounters among cisgender (cis) and transgender (trans) LGBQ individuals and argue that gender expression is a unique and necessary context-dependent lens for conceptualizing anti-queer discrimination.…”

“…This study builds upon extant literature in three important ways. First, in focusing on gender expression, this study foregrounds the psychological and social salience of gender for LGBTQ individuals (Levitt, 2019). Second, in using queer theory as a conceptual framework, this study illuminates the inherently gendered nature of anti-LGBQ maltreatment, situating individual experiences within macro processes of gender inequality.…”

Acoustic and Perceptual Outcomes of Vocal Training for Transgender Women

“…Stigmas are formed by those who express distain for individuals who go against the norm (Levitt, 2019). It is possible that these scores were determined by each participant's individual experiences with social norms or interaction, hence the variation in scores.…”