“…In addition to beliefs about structural factors, of particular relevance to this area of study are those scales which measure the psychological consequences, coping responses, and other constructs that serve as risk and protective factors. Currently scales measuring psychological symptoms of race-based trauma (depressive, anger, anxious, self-esteem, somatic; Pieterse et al, 2023), psychological symptoms stemming from racial discrimination (psychological distress, alienation, safety concerns, hypervigilance; M. T. , PTSD-oriented symptoms pertaining to race-based trauma (negative emotions, disconnectedness, restlessness, self-loathing, distress, flashbacks; M. Williams & Zare, 2022), coping with racism (action-oriented, spiritual, anger regulation, bargaining, hypervigilance, confrontation-oriented strategies ;Forsyth & Carter, 2014), and historical trauma (negative affect and resentment, concern for group integrity, in-group identification, and perception of discrimination; W. K. N. Williams & Mills, 2018) have been published in peer-reviewed journals. The index of race-related stress has desirable psychometric properties and purports to measure structural, individual, and cultural racism (Utsey, 1999).…”