A process-based anatomy of Mediterranean cyclones: From baroclinic lows to tropical-like systems

Abstract

Abstract. In this study, we address the question of the atmospheric processes that turn Mediterranean cyclones into severe storms. Our approach applies on-line potential vorticity (PV) budget diagnostics and piecewise PV inversion to WRF model simulations of the mature stage of 100 intense Mediterranean cyclones. We quantify the relative contributions of different processes to cyclone development and therefore deliver, for the first time, a comprehensive insight into the variety of cyclonic systems that develop in the Mediterranean from the perspective of cyclone dynamics. In particular, we show that all 100 cyclones are systematically influenced by two main PV anomalies: a major anomaly in the upper troposphere, related to the baroclinic forcing of cyclone development, and a minor anomaly in the lower troposphere, related to diabatic processes and momentum forcing of wind. Among the diabatic processes, latent heat is shown to act as the main PV source (reinforcing cyclones), being partly balanced by PV sinks of temperature diffusion and radiative cooling (weakening cyclones). Momentum forcing is shown to have an ambiguous feedback, able to reinforce and weaken cyclones while in certain cases playing an important role in cyclone development. Piecewise PV inversion shows that most cyclones develop due to the combined effect of both baroclinic and diabatic forcing, i.e. due to both PV anomalies. However, the stronger the baroclinic forcing, the less a cyclone is found to develop due to diabatic processes. Several pairs of exemplary cases are used to illustrate the variety of contributions of atmospheric processes to the development of Mediterranean cyclones: (i) cases where both baroclinic and diabatic processes contribute to cyclone development; (ii) cases that mainly developed due to latent-heat release; (iii) cases developing in the wake of the Alps; and (iv) two unusual cases, one where momentum forcing dominates cyclone development and the other presenting a dual surface pressure centre. Finally, we focus on ten medicane cases (i.e. tropical-like cyclones). In contrast to their tropical counterparts – but in accordance with most intense Mediterranean cyclones – most medicanes are shown to develop under the influence of both baroclinic and diabatic processes. In discussion of medicane driving processes, we highlight the need for a physical definition of these systems.

Climatology of cyclones in western and northwestern Iran using reanalysis and remote sensing data

“…Temperature and geopotential height had the lowest anomalies in the northern quadrants. The finding supports that of Flaounas et al (2015aFlaounas et al ( , 2021aFlaounas et al ( , 2021b who showed that the temperature in Mediterranean cyclones is lower in the northern quadrants than Potential vorticity is helpful to understand formation and decay of these cyclones. It had positive values in all quadrants of the cyclone at 850 hPa (Figure 4a, in colour) and 500 hPa (Figure 4b, in colour), which suggested a high release of latent heat by condensation.…”

“…Flaounas et al (2015aFlaounas et al ( , 2021b for Mediterranean cyclones and with Davis et al (2013), Tamarin and Kaspi (2016) and Vanniere et al…”

“…The finding supports that of Flaounas et al . (2015a, 2021a, 2021b) who showed that the temperature in Mediterranean cyclones is lower in the northern quadrants than southern quadrants, associated with the shape of the cold and warm fronts where the wind speed anomalies reach their maximum, too (Figure 5a,b).…”

Origin of low-tropospheric potential vorticity in Mediterranean cyclones

“…This alignment is a so-called PV tower (Rossa et al, 2000;Čampa and Wernli, 2012), which has also been observed in intense Mediterranean cyclones (e.g., Miglietta et al, 2017). In a recent study, Flaounas et al (2021) found that both PV anomalies are contributing to the cyclonic circulation. However, their relative contribution might strongly vary from case to case.…”

“…In some case studies of Mediterranean cyclones near the Alps, turbulence, particularly in the boundary layer, was found to produce the lower-tropospheric PV (Flaounas et al, 2021). This PV originates from positive PV filaments, socalled PV banners (Aebischer and Schär, 1998;Rotunno et al, 1999;Epifanio and Durran, 2002;Schär et al, 2003;Flamant et al, 2004), horizontally extending from the mountains to the Mediterranean Sea.…”