A Primer on IPv4 Scarcity

Richter, Philipp; Allman, Mark; Bush, Randy; Paxson, Vern

doi:10.1145/2766330.2766335

Cited by 41 publications

(23 citation statements)

References 25 publications

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“…Thus, adopting CGN presents a viable alternative to buying IPv4 address space from brokers. CGNs actively extend the lifetime of IPv4 and hence also fuel the demand of the growing market for IPv4 address space [36], which in turn affects market prices and possibly hampers the adoption IPv6.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…IMC 2016, November 14 -16, 2016, Santa Monica, CA, USA Today, Network Address Translation (NAT) [18] is ubiquitous at the edge of home networks to meet both the ISPs' desire to conserve IP addresses and the users' requirement of connecting a multitude of devices. IP address scarcity has long moved beyond home networks and onto the global stage [36]. Thus, even though IPv6 is gaining momentum [14], large ISPs are confronted by address shortages, as we illustrate in § 2, and hence turn to a well-worn coping technique: NAT.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Our second set of methods relies on extensions to our Netalyzr measurement platform [24], which allow us to study the presence and detailed properties of CGNs based on locally available addressing information, repeated connectivity tests, as well as a new method that leverages the stateful nature of NATs and uses TTL-limited probes to force retention of state in some hops while allowing it to expire in others. Studying Global CGN Presence: IPv4 address scarcity manifests differently for different networks in different parts of the world [36]. Our CGN detection methods give us a broad and unprecedented view into the global deployment of CGNs, which we present in § 5.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

See 2 more Smart Citations

A Multi-perspective Analysis of Carrier-Grade NAT Deployment

Richter

Wohlfart

Vallina-Rodriguez

et al. 2016

Proceedings of the 2016 Internet Measurement Conference

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As ISPs face IPv4 address scarcity they increasingly turn to network address translation (NAT) to accommodate the address needs of their customers. Recently, ISPs have moved beyond employing NATs only directly at individual customers and instead begun deploying Carrier-Grade NATs (CGNs) to apply address translation to many independent and disparate endpoints spanning physical locations, a phenomenon that so far has received little in the way of empirical assessment. In this work we present a broad and systematic study of the deployment and behavior of these middleboxes. We develop a methodology to detect the existence of hosts behind CGNs by extracting non-routable IP addresses from peer lists we obtain by crawling the BitTorrent DHT. We complement this approach with improvements to our Netalyzr troubleshooting service, enabling us to determine a range of indicators of CGN presence as well as detailed insights into key properties of CGNs. Combining the two data sources we illustrate the scope of CGN deployment on today's Internet, and report on characteristics of commonly deployed CGNs and their effect on end users

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

See 1 more Smart Citation

A Multi-perspective Analysis of Carrier-Grade NAT Deployment

Richter

Wohlfart

Vallina-Rodriguez

et al. 2016

Proceedings of the 2016 Internet Measurement Conference

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“…IPv4 address markets are an operational reality, governed by the respective RIR policies [31]. A pertinent implication of our work for these markets is that our metrics, combined with the appropriate vantage points, are ideal to readily determine spatio-temporal utilization of network blocks.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…IPv4 address space scarcity has recently come to the full attention of the research and operations communities, as four out of the five Regional Internet Registries (RIRs) that manage global IP address assignments have exhausted their available IPv4 address space [31]. Figure 1 is annotated with the respective exhaustion dates for each RIR.…”

Section: Rethinking Address Activitymentioning

confidence: 99%

Beyond Counting

Richter

Smaragdakis

Plonka

et al. 2016

Proceedings of the 2016 Internet Measurement Conference

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In this study, we report on techniques and analyses that enable us to capture Internet-wide activity at individual IP addresslevel granularity by relying on server logs of a large commercial content delivery network (CDN) that serves close to 3 trillion HTTP requests on a daily basis. Across the whole of 2015, these logs recorded client activity involving 1.2 billion unique IPv4 addresses, the highest ever measured, in agreement with recent estimates. Monthly client IPv4 address counts showed constant growth for years prior, but since 2014, the IPv4 count has stagnated while IPv6 counts have grown. Thus, it seems we have entered an era marked by increased complexity, one in which the sole enumeration of active IPv4 addresses is of little use to characterize recent growth of the Internet as a whole.With this observation in mind, we consider new points of view in the study of global IPv4 address activity. Our analysis shows significant churn in active IPv4 addresses: the set of active IPv4 addresses varies by as much as 25% over the course of a year. Second, by looking across the active addresses in a prefix, we are able to identify and attribute activity patterns to network restructurings, user behaviors, and, in particular, various address assignment practices. Third, by combining spatio-temporal measures of address utilization with measures of traffic volume, and sampling-based estimates of relative host counts, we present novel perspectives on worldwide IPv4 address activity, including empirical observation of under-utilization in some areas, and complete utilization, or exhaustion, in others.

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CATENAE: A scalable service function chaining system for legacy mobile networks

Bifulco¹,

Matsiuk²,

Silvestro³

2017

Int J Network Mgmt

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Summary Service function chaining promises to ease the introduction of new services in mobile networks by enabling the dynamic composition of virtualized network functions. However, current implementations rely on new tunneling protocols and on network infrastructure changes, which make deployments in legacy networks difficult. In this paper, we present a system for service function chaining that can be readily deployed in mobile networks, without requiring any protocols or network modifications. Our system, named CATENAE, exploits the specific properties of the targeted deployment environment to overcome scalability issues and efficiently implement traffic steering. Using a centralized controller, CATENAE coordinates software‐defined networking software switches to implement a steering method based on MAC address rewriting. Furthermore, we present the design of a hybrid hardware‐software software‐defined networking switch to realize a scalable network traffic classifiers, which CATENAE employs to assign network flows to corresponding function chains. Using experimental evaluations based on physical testbeds, emulated environments, and simulations, we demonstrate that our approach is ready to be deployed in mobile networks, scales to handle expected mobile networks' workloads, introduces no overhead in the (virtual) network functions, and integrates seamlessly with legacy network management systems.

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A Primer on IPv4 Scarcity

Cited by 41 publications

References 25 publications

A Multi-perspective Analysis of Carrier-Grade NAT Deployment

A Multi-perspective Analysis of Carrier-Grade NAT Deployment

Beyond Counting

CATENAE: A scalable service function chaining system for legacy mobile networks

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