A Practical Approach to Monitoring Biomarkers of Inflammation and Muscle Damage in Youth Soccer Players During a 6‐Month Training Cycle

Abstract

The aim of the study was to determine the effects of a 6-month training cycle on muscle damage and inflammatory markers in youth male soccer players. Twenty-one soccer players were tested four times: at the beginning (T1) and immediately after the pre-season period (T2), in the middle (T3) and at the end of the competitive period (T4). Muscle damage and inflammatory markers were determined in blood taken 36 hours after the match. Throughout the training cycle significant increases (p < 0.05) of creatine kinase (T1: 254.4 U·L-1; T4: 304.2 U·L-1) and lactate dehydrogenase (T1: 382.8 U·L-1; T4: 453.2 U·L-1) activities were observed. Significant changes (p < 0.05) in platelet count (T1: 210.5·109·L-1; T4: 234.2·109·L-1), percentage of lymphocyte (T1: 39.80%; T4: 42.97%), monocyte (T1: 6.88%; T4: 9.99%) and granulocyte (T1: 53.32%; T4: 47.05%) as well as in granulocyte-to-lymphocyte (T1: 1.41; T4: 1.17) and lymphocyte-to-monocyte (T1: 6.21; T4: 4.46) ratios were noted. The correlation analysis revealed statistically significant relationships (p < 0.05) between: myoglobin and the percentage of leukocyte subpopulations and the granulocyte to lymphocyte ratio; lactate dehydrogenase and the percentage of monocyte; lactate and leukocyte count. In conclusion, the reported muscle damage and inflammatory markers in T3 and T4 indicate the need for fatigue status monitoring in youth soccer players, especially in the competitive period. Moreover granulocyte to lymphocyte and lymphocyte to monocyte ratios proved to be sensitive to fatigue changes and therefore can provide coaches and sport scientists with a broader perspective on the biochemical monitoring of training status in soccer players.

Review on the Effect of Exercise Training on Immune Function

“…In addition, decreased secretory immunoglobulin A in elite athletes after high-intensity training leads to the alteration of mucosal immunity, which impairs the athlete's intracellular defense against pathogens and increases the incidence and risk of symptoms of upper respiratory tract symptoms [ 9 ]. In addition, the ratios of granulocytes/lymphocytes and lymphocyte/monocyte were shown to be sensitive to changes of fatigue [ 10 ]. Therefore, it can be used as an indicator of the body's cellular immunity and to evaluate the physiological state of its training state.…”

Innate immunity changes in soccer players after whole-body cryotherapy

“…Long-term training and inadequate rest lead to biochemical changes, muscle damage, chronic fatigue, increased susceptibility to injury and inflammation. All these effects are reflected in a performance decline [ 11 , 12 ]. Therefore, this study focused on the use of WBC as a recovery strategy for non-professional male soccer players, through the analysis of an exhaustive collection of hematochemical and hormonal parameters.…”

“…Whole-body cryotherapy (WBC) consists of the short exposure (up to 2–3 min) to dry air at cryogenic temperatures (-110 to -195 °C) and has recently been practiced after injury for muscle recovery to reduce the inflammation process resulting from muscle overuse [ 10 ]. Such temperatures induce peripheral vasoconstriction, blood pressure increase and reduction of sympathetic nerve activity [ 11 ]. Studies on non-athletes and on rugby players demonstrated that at least two minutes of exposure are needed to significantly reduce skin temperature [ 12 , 13 ].…”

Physical Fitness and Inflammatory Response to the Training Load of Wheelchair Rugby Players

“…Most often the testosterone (T) and cortisol concentrations in the blood are used for the diagnosis of the overload state. The literature analysis indicates that the development of anabolic–catabolic balance is not only influenced by the training’s intensity and duration, but also by the training volume, or atmospheric conditions [ 14 , 15 ]. Cortisol is considered to be a catabolic hormone because it stimulates glycogenolysis in the liver by increasing the glucose concentration in blood.…”

“…Analysis of the testosterone/cortisol T/C ratio is not only a good indicator of the body’s metabolic balance but is also found in the literature to be an indicator of peripheral and central fatigue in athletes [ 18 , 19 , 20 ]. Low values of the TT/C and FT/C indicators are proposed to be early biochemical indicators of exercise-induced fatigue [ 14 ]. Esspecially in extreme cases, intensified catabolic and limited anabolic processes during athletes’ training cycle, TT/C and FT/C ratios seem to be appropriate indicators of the overreaching or overtraining syndrome [ 20 ].…”