A Photovoltaic Technology Review: History, Fundamentals and Applications

Abstract

Photovoltaic technology has become a huge industry, based on the enormous applications for solar cells. In the 19th century, when photoelectric experiences started to be conducted, it would be unexpected that these optoelectronic devices would act as an essential energy source, fighting the ecological footprint brought by non-renewable sources, since the industrial revolution. Renewable energy, where photovoltaic technology has an important role, is present in 3 out of 17 United Nations 2030 goals. However, this path cannot be taken without industry and research innovation. This article aims to review and summarise all the meaningful milestones from photovoltaics history. Additionally, an extended review of the advantages and disadvantages among different technologies is done. Photovoltaics fundamentals are also presented from the photoelectric effect on a p-n junction to the electrical performance characterisation and modelling. Cells’ performance under unusual conditions are summarised, such as due to temperature variation or shading. Finally, some applications are presented and some project feasibility indicators are analysed. Thus, the review presented in this article aims to clarify to readers noteworthy milestones in photovoltaics history, summarise its fundamentals and remarkable applications to catch the attention of new researchers for this interesting field.

How to Improve an Offshore Wind Station

“…Although having Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE) higher than a normal offshore wind farm, the co-location of both technologies are demonstrating feasible. The advantages of the use of tidal are that we can produce a lot of reliable energy with smaller turbines and seize more energy from the same location [1,12].…”

“…Fossil fuels are by definition a finite source (or at least, Humans consume that energy faster the it is renewed). Meanwhile, the pollution they cause (from climate-damaging greenhouse gases to health-endangering particles) has been setting negatively records, leading to dramatic consequences [1][2][3].…”

“…Offshore renewable are worldly recognised as reliable and stable electricity sources. Also, they are seen as support for water desalination and aquaculture [1][2][3][4].…”

“…In 1991 was installed in Denmark the world's first offshore wind farm. Nowadays, millions of people consumes electricity from large-scale offshore wind farm projects [1][2][3][4].…”

“…In 2016, 10 European countries had already more than 12 MW gridconnected production from 81 offshore wind farms, with a total of 3589 turbines installed. Nowadays, based on several signed commitments to reduce greenhouse gases emissions as well as the targets to reach carbon neutrality led to promising prediction regarding these renewable technologies [1][2][3][4].…”