“…There are a plethora of innovative examples for Geo-KGs, including the spatial scene KG (Shen et al, 2022), geographic evolutionary KG (Zheng et al, 2022), disaster prediction KG (Ge et al, 2022), urban KG (Liu et al, 2023), smart transportation KG (Del Mondo et al, 2021;Qi et al, 2023), and the largest cross-domain KnowWhereGraph to date (Janowicz et al, 2022). The construction process of Geo-KG generally employs the multisource geospatial data fusion and knowledge extraction technology, encompassing geo-semantic parsing (Nizzoli et al, 2020), geo-entity identification, linkage, alignment (Liang et al, 2023;Sun, Hu, et al, 2021), topological relation acquisition (Wang, Zhu, et al, 2022), and expertise association. Based on the constructed Geo-KGs, there are two application modes tailored to a diverse array of downstream tasks.…”