A norovirus oyster-related outbreak in a nursing home in France, January 2012

Loury, P.; Guyader, Françoise S. Le; Saux, J.C. Le; Ambert-Balay, Katia; Parrot, P.; Hubert, B.

doi:10.1017/s0950268814003628

Cited by 35 publications

(19 citation statements)

References 25 publications

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“…These outbreak settings have likewise been identified in other Asia countries, such as Japan and South Korea (18,20), as the most common settings for norovirus outbreaks. In contrast, in the United States and Europe, healthcare facilities (primarily nursing homes and hospitals) are the most commonly reported setting for norovirus outbreaks (11,21,22). The high proportion of norovirus outbreaks in childcare centers and schools seems unique to China and might be associated with the high population density in these settings (23) and the enhanced monitoring and reporting of any outbreaks in schools in China.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Norovirus Outbreak Surveillance, China, 2016–2018

Jin¹,

Wu²,

Kong³

et al. 2020

Emerg. Infect. Dis.

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H uman noroviruses are the leading cause of outbreaks of acute gastroenteritis, associated with ≈50% of all outbreaks worldwide (1). Norovirus outbreaks are frequently reported in semiclosed institutions, such as hospitals, nursing homes, schools, and childcare centers (2). The virus is primarily transmitted directly from person to person or indirectly through contaminated surfaces, food, or water (1). The relative stability of noroviruses on environmental surfaces makes infection control challenging (3). Several candidate norovirus vaccines are in clinical trials (4). Noroviruses are single-stranded RNA viruses that belong to the genus Norovirus, family Caliciviridae. The genome is organized into 3 open reading frames (ORFs): ORF1 encodes polyprotein, ORF2 encodes the major capsid protein (VP1), and ORF3 encodes the minor (VP2) capsid protein. The viruses are classified into at least 7 genogroups (G), of which viruses from GI, GII, and GIV infect humans (5,6). On the basis of the diversity of VP1, these genogroups can be further divided into at least 33 genotypes: 9 GI, 22 GII, and 2 GIV (7). In addition, on the basis of the diversity of the polymerase region of ORF1, >14 GI polymerase (GI.P) types and 27 GII.P types have been described (7). Because of the frequent recombination at the ORF1/ORF2 junction region, a dual-typing system has been proposed for GI and GII noroviruses (7). Since 2002, genogroup II, genotype 4 (GII.4), noroviruses have been associated with most norovirus outbreaks globally, and new GII.4 variants have emerged every 2-3 years (8). Monitoring the trends in the distribution of the various genotypes and possible association of certain strains with a more severe disease outcome is important for understanding and controlling norovirus epidemics (9). Several norovirus outbreak surveillance networks, including NoroNet (10) and CaliciNet (7,11), have been developed during the past decade. NoroNet captures molecular and epidemiologic data on norovirus outbreaks and sporadic cases submitted by 19 participating countries across Europe and Asia and by Australia. CaliciNet is a norovirus outbreak surveillance network in the United States in which state and local public health laboratories electronically submit laboratory data, including sequences from norovirus outbreaks, to a central database (https://www. cdc.gov/norovirus/reporting/calicinet/data.html). CaliciNet data are integrated with epidemiologic data

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Norovirus Outbreak Surveillance, China, 2016–2018

Jin¹,

Wu²,

Kong³

et al. 2020

Emerg. Infect. Dis.

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“…Shellfish hygiene regulations currently do not include virus contamination. However, viruses such as NoV and Hepatitis A (HAV) have been detected in shellfish (Polo et al 2015), which were implicated in NoV and HAV outbreaks (Loury et al 2015). To ensure protection of shellfish waters, the introduction of virus testing methods or viral standards has been proposed to improve viral hygiene with respect to shellfish production, and is discussed below (EURL 2014a).…”

Section: Regulating Nov In Shellfish Waters and Shellfish: Current Prmentioning

confidence: 99%

Critical Review on the Public Health Impact of Norovirus Contamination in Shellfish and the Environment: A UK Perspective

et al. 2017

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We review the risk of norovirus (NoV) infection to the human population from consumption of contaminated shellfish. From a UK perspective, risk is apportioned for different vectors of NoV infection within the population. NoV spreads mainly by person-to-person contact or via unsanitary food handling. NoV also enters the coastal zone via wastewater discharges resulting in contamination of shellfish waters. Typically, NoV persists in the marine environment for several days, with its presence strongly linked to human population density, wastewater discharge rate, and efficacy of wastewater treatment. Shellfish bioaccumulate NoV and current post-harvest depuration is inefficient in its removal. While NoV can be inactivated by cooking (e.g. mussels), consumption of contaminated raw shellfish (e.g. oysters) represents a risk to human health. Consumption of contaminated food accounts for 3–11% of NoV cases in the UK (~74,000 cases/year), of which 16% are attributable to oyster consumption (11,800 cases/year). However, environmental and human factors influencing NoV infectivity remain poorly understood. Lack of standard methods for accurate quantification of infective and non-infective (damaged) NoV particles represent a major barrier, hampering identification of an appropriate lower NoV contamination limit for shellfish. Future management strategies may include shellfish quality assessment (at point of harvest or at point of supply) or harvesting controls. However, poor understanding of NoV inactivation in shellfish and the environment currently limits accurate apportionment and risk assessment for NoV and hence the identification of appropriate shellfish or environmental quality standards.

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“…Human enteric viruses have been reported to be among the main causative agents associated with bivalve mollusk outbreaks. HuNoV and HAV account for the majority of these shellfish outbreaks (2,(5)(6)(7)(8). Pioneering studies have shown that these enteric viruses persist and can bioaccumulate to high titers within shellfish tissues (9-12).…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

Thermal Inactivation of Enteric Viruses and Bioaccumulation of Enteric Foodborne Viruses in Live Oysters (Crassostrea virginica)

Araud

DiCaprio

et al. 2016

Appl Environ Microbiol

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f Human enteric viruses are among the main causative agents of shellfish-associated outbreaks. In this study, the kinetics of viral bioaccumulation in live oysters and the heat stabilities of the predominant enteric viruses were determined both in tissue culture and in oyster tissues. A human norovirus (HuNoV) GII.4 strain, HuNoV surrogates (murine norovirus [MNV-1], Tulane virus [TV]), hepatitis A virus (HAV), and human rotavirus (RV) bioaccumulated to high titers within oyster tissues, with different patterns of bioaccumulation for the different viruses. We tested the thermal stability of each virus at 62, 72, and 80°C in culture medium. The viruses can be ranked from the most heat resistant to the least stable as follows: HAV, RV, TV, MNV-1. In addition, we found that oyster tissues provided protection to the viruses during heat treatment. To decipher the mechanism underlying viral inactivation by heat, purified TV was treated at 80°C for increasing time intervals. It was found that the integrity of the viral capsid was disrupted, whereas viral genomic RNA remained intact. Interestingly, heat treatment leading to complete loss of TV infectivity was not sufficient to completely disrupt the receptor binding activity of TV, as determined by the porcine gastric mucin-magnetic bead binding assay. Similarly, HuNoV virus-like particles (VLPs) and a HuNoV GII.4 strain retained some receptor binding ability following heat treatment. Although foodborne viruses have variable heat stability, 80°C for >6 min was sufficient to completely inactivate enteric viruses in oysters, with the exception of HAV.A pproximately 7.6 million to 14.5 million illnesses in the United States are attributed to the consumption of contaminated seafood each year, and enteric viruses are responsible for more than 50% of these cases (1). In a review of the available epidemiological evidence, human norovirus (HuNoV) and hepatitis A virus (HAV) were the leading viruses associated with shellfish, accounting for 83.7% and 12.8% of outbreaks, respectively (2). The type of shellfish most frequently associated with viral outbreaks was oysters, which were the vehicle in 58.4% of outbreaks (2). In some regions, human enteric viruses are practically ubiquitous in harvested shellfish. Keller et al. (3) showed that 100% of shellfish samples collected from Vitória Bay, Espírito Santo, Brazil, were positive for rotavirus (RV) and adenovirus. However, only 80% of the growing water samples were positive for these pathogens. Viral titers were 400 times higher in the shellfish samples than in the growing water, indicating high levels of natural bioaccumulation (3). In the Galician Rias area, the largest shellfish production area in the European Union, 55% of mussel, clam, and cockle samples were contaminated by HuNoV genogroup I (GI) and GII and HAV (4). Thus, understanding of the ecology and persistence of enteric viruses in shellfish is needed to help prevent future outbreaks.The consumption of uncooked contaminated bivalve shellfish continues to pose a public ...

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A norovirus oyster-related outbreak in a nursing home in France, January 2012

Cited by 35 publications

References 25 publications

Norovirus Outbreak Surveillance, China, 2016–2018

Norovirus Outbreak Surveillance, China, 2016–2018

Critical Review on the Public Health Impact of Norovirus Contamination in Shellfish and the Environment: A UK Perspective

Thermal Inactivation of Enteric Viruses and Bioaccumulation of Enteric Foodborne Viruses in Live Oysters (Crassostrea virginica)

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