A new perspective on the social functions of emotions: Gratitude and the witnessing effect.

Abstract

We propose a novel theoretical and empirical approach to studying group-level social functions of emotions and use it to make new predictions about social consequences of gratitude. Here, we document the witnessing effect: In social groups, emotional expressions are often observed by third-party witnesses—family members, coworkers, friends, and neighbors. Emotional expressions coordinate group living by changing third-party witnesses’ behavior toward first-party emotion expressers and toward second-party people to whom emotion is expressed. In 8 experiments (N = 1,817), we test this for gratitude, hypothesizing that third-party witnesses will be more helpful and affiliative toward a first party who expressed gratitude to a second party, as well as toward the second party, and why. In Experiments 1–3, participants who witnessed a “thank you” in 1 line of text, expressed to someone who previously helped the grateful person, were themselves more helpful toward the grateful person. In Experiment 4, witnesses of gratitude expressed to someone else via video recording subsequently self-disclosed more to the grateful person, and in Experiment 5 wanted to affiliate more with the grateful person and with the person toward whom gratitude was expressed. Experiments 6–8 used within-subjects designs to test hypothesized behavioral and social-perceptual mechanisms for these effects, with videos of real gratitude expressions. Gratitude may help build multiple relationships within a social network directly and simultaneously. By specifying proximal interpersonal mechanisms for reverberating consequences of 1 person’s communicated emotion, the present work advances theory on the group-level functions of emotions.

Social comparison and perceived envy‐motivated communication involving travel nurses: A qualitative study

“…This study empirically supports the notion that envy can trigger both constructive reciprocity (Hofmann et al, 2009;Lee & Duffy, 2019) and destructive tactics that undermine others (Puranik et al, 2019;Reh et al, 2018). Benign envy appears less intuitive because the extending of social support and help can be acts of reciprocity and gratitude (Algoe et al, 2019;Simpson et al, 2018) 2011). Since envy is an emotion that triggers behaviour (Lange & Crusius, 2015), envy and prosocial behaviour are not mutually exclusive.…”

“…This study empirically supports the notion that envy can trigger both constructive reciprocity (Hofmann et al, ; Lee & Duffy, ) and destructive tactics that undermine others (Puranik et al, ; Reh et al, ). Benign envy appears less intuitive because the extending of social support and help can be acts of reciprocity and gratitude (Algoe et al, ; Simpson et al, ). Yet, the presence of prosocial behaviour does not necessarily indicate the absence of envious sentiments because benign envy motivates reciprocity as envious individuals extend help to envied individuals (Cohen‐Charash & Larson, ; Lange & Crusius, ; Van de Ven et al, ).…”

“…The social norm of reciprocity posits that grateful recipients of kindness repay their benefactors and ‘pay it forward’ by helping third‐party bystanders (Algoe, Dwyer, Younge, & Oveis, ; Simpson, Harrell, Melamed, Heiserman, & Negraia, ), which suggests that nurses supported by other nurses will likely reciprocate in prosocial behaviour. However, when and whom one can or will help highlight differences in individuals’ ability to share and to compete for resources.…”

The Development of Prosocial Emotions

“…Keltner, Horberg, & Oveis, 2006). It follows, we argue, that gratitude displays should elicit affiliation and cooperation from benefactors and bystanders alike (see Algoe, Dwyer, Younge, & Oveis, 2019).…”

Comment: Measuring Guilty and Grateful Behaviors in Children and Adults

“…Later influential reviews (e.g., McCullough, Kilpatrick, Emmons, & Larson, 2001;McCullough, Kimeldorf, & Cohen, 2008) were themselves influenced by this existing evidence base. But there is now a robust body of research to support new theorizing that recognizes the value of a qualitatively different type of relationship-that based on communal (not exchange) norms (Algoe, 2012;Algoe, Dwyer, Younge, & Oveis, 2019;Algoe, Haidt, & Gable, 2008). The shift in understanding of what triggers gratitude (Algoe et al, 2008) also shifts understanding of its potential social functions: understanding gratitude as a detection and response system for promoting high-quality relationships with people who have demonstrated care for one's welfare has led to predictions about a wide variety of social behavioral outcomes beyond reciprocity among adults (e.g., Bartlett, Condon, Cruz, Baumann, & Desteno, 2012;Jia, Lee, & Tong, 2015;Jia, Tong, & Lee, 2014).…”